What is the term for restricting discussion or interpersonal communication when making decisions?

Decisions are typically made under one of three conditions −

• Certainty
• Risk and
• Uncertainty

These conditions are based on the amount of knowledge the decision maker has regarding the final outcome of the decision. The manager's decision depends on a number of factors, like the manager's knowledge, experience, understanding and intuition.

Certainty

• Decisions are made under conditions of certainty when the manager has enough information to know the outcome of the decision before it is made.

• The manager knows the available alternatives as well as the conditions and consequences of those actions.

• There is little ambiguity and hence relatively low possibility of making a bad decision.

Risk

• Most managerial decisions are made under conditions of risk.

• Decisions are taken in risk when the manager has some information leading to the decision but does not know everything and is unsure or unaware of the consequences.

Under conditions of risk, the manager may find it helpful to use probability estimates. This is where the manager’s experience and/or intelligence is of great help.

Uncertainty

• Decisions are made under uncertainty when the probabilities of the results are unknown.

• There is no awareness of all the alternatives and also the outcomes, even for the known alternatives.

Under such conditions managers need to make certain assumptions about the situation in order to provide a reasonable framework for decision making. Intuition, judgment, and experience always play a major role in the decision making process under conditions of uncertainty.

The decision-making process involves the following steps −

• Define the problem
• Identify limiting factors
• Develop potential alternatives
• Analyze and select the best alternatives
• Implement the decision

Define the Problem

The first step in the process of decision making is the recognition or identification of the problem, and recognizing that a decision needs to be taken.

It is important to accurately define the problem. Managers can do this by identifying the problem separately from its symptoms. Studying the symptoms helps getting closer to the root cause of the problem.

Identify Limiting Factors

In order to choose the best alternative and make a decision every manager needs to have the ideal resources − information, time, personnel, equipment, and supplies. But this is an ideal situation and may not always be possible.

A limiting factor is something that stands in the way of accomplishing a desired objective.

Develop Potential Alternatives

Recognizing the limiting factor in a given situation makes it possible to narrow down the search for alternatives and make the best decision possible with the information, resources, and time available.

Some methods for developing alternatives are −

• Brainstorming, where a group works together to generate ideas and alternative solutions.

• Nominal group technique is a method that involves the use of a highly structured meeting, complete with an agenda, and restricts discussion or interpersonal communication during the decision-making process.

• Delphi technique where the participants do not meet, but a group leader uses written questionnaires to conduct the decision making.

Analyze the Alternatives

This is an important stage in the decision-making process and perhaps the toughest. Managers must identify the merits and demerits of each alternative and weigh them in light of various situations before making a final decision.

Evaluating the alternatives can be done in numerous ways. Here are a few possibilities −

• Qualitative and quantitative measurements
• Perform a cost‐effectiveness analysis for each alternative
• Marginal analysis

Selecting Alternatives

Once the alternatives are analyzed and evaluated, the manager has to choose the best one. The manager needs to choose the alternative that gives the most advantage while meeting all the required criteria. Sometimes the choice is simple with obvious benefits, at times the optimal solution is a combination of several alternatives. At times when the best alternative may not be obvious, the manager uses probability estimates, research and analysis aided by his experience and judgment.

Evaluating Decision Effectiveness

The job of the managers does not end with making decisions. They are also responsible to get favorable results from the decision taken and implemented.

The effectiveness of a decision can be understood through a systematic and scientific evaluation system that provides feedback on how well the decision is being implemented, what the results have been, and what amendments and adjustments have been made to get the intended results.

Even though interpersonal communication is often considered as an in-person communication, we all know that remote work is completely reshaping the way our employees communicate.

In order to adapt to this new trend, employers are now looking for new ways to keep their workforce connected, engaged and well informed. Also, as many employees are now experiencing extensive information overload, employers need to understand that, when it comes to internal communications, one size does not fit all.

They need to have a very good understanding about how internal communications channels are used, and they need to have the knowledge around how to make communication more personalized based on employees’ locations, languages spoken, titles and responsibilities and well as employees interests.

Many are, therefore, implementing new modern employee communication solutions that serve as a central place for keeping remote, blue collar as well as in-office employees together, as well as for driving meaningful, two-way company conversations on a daily basis.

6 Elements of Interpersonal Communication

In communication theory, there are six key components of interpersonal communication.

The communicators

Term communicator refers to both the sender of the information as well as the receiver. In interpersonal communication, there are at least two communicators involved in the conversation.

The message

One of the most important parts of interpersonal communication is the message. Message can be conveyed in many ways: speech, body language, tone of voice, gestures and other indicators..

Noise

Noise refers to the gap between the message that is received and what it sent. Examples of noise include jargon, language barriers, inattention and more. Noise is the problem that many companies face in the workplace, and the reason why internal communicators are struggling to get the necessary employees’ attention.

Feedback

Feedback is the response of the receiver. In other words, it’s the message sent back to the sender. Feedback is important because it allows the sender to know whether the message has been received and interpreted correctly.

Context

Whether a message is received and interpreted correctly depends mostly on context. Therefore, interpersonal communication is contextual. Context is about the environmental factors that influence the outcomes of communication.

These include time and place, as well as factors like family relationships, gender, culture, personal interest and the environment

Channel

Finally, this interpersonal communication element refers to how the communication occurs. A message is sent and received through a specific channel, or medium.

Besides face-to-face communication, some of the most common communication channels in the workplace include, emails and intranets. Identifying and understanding the performance of those communication channels is extremely important for employers.

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Chapter 9 / Exercise Step 1

Understanding Management

Daft/Marcic

Expert Verified

• The actual behavior of top executives during decision-making meetings often does not jibe with their attitudes and prescriptions about effective executive action.

• The gap that often exists between what executives say and how they behave helps create barriers to openness and trust, to the effective search for alternatives, to innovation, and to flexibility in the organization.

• These barriers are more destructive in important decision-making meetings than in routine meetings, and they upset effective managers more than ineffective ones.

• The barriers cannot be broken down simply by intellectual exercises. Rather, executives need feedback concerning their behavior and opportunities to develop self-awareness in action. To this end, certain kinds of questioning are valuable; playing back and analyzing tape recordings of meetings has proved to be a helpful step; and laboratory education programs are valuable.

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These are a few of the major findings of a study of executive decision making in six representative companies. The findings have vital implications for management groups everywhere; for while some organizations are less subject to the weaknesses described than are others, all groups have them in some degree. In this article I shall discuss the findings in detail and examine the implications for executives up and down the line. (For information on the company sample and research methods used in the study, see the sidebar.)

The six companies studied include: (1) an electronics firm with 40,000 employees, (2) a manufacturer and marketer of a new innovative product with 4,000 employees, (3) a large research and development company with 3,000 employees, (4) a small research and development organization with 150 employees, (5) a consulting-research firm with 400 employees, and (6) a producer of heavy equipment with 4,000 employees.

The main focus of the investigation reported here was on the behavior of 165 top executives in these companies. The executives were board members, executive committee members, upper-level managers, and (in a few cases) middle-level managers.

Approximately 265 decision-making meetings were studied and nearly 10,000 units of behavior analyzed. The topics of the meetings ranged widely, covering investment decisions, new products, manufacturing problems, marketing strategies, new pricing policies, administrative changes, and personnel issues. An observer took notes during all but 10 of the meetings; for research purposes, these 10 were analyzed “blind” from tapes (i.e., without ever meeting the executives). All other meetings were taped also, but analyzed at a later time.

The major device for analyzing the tapes was a new system of categories for scoring decision-making meetings.* Briefly, the executives’ behavior was scored according to how often they—

…owned up to and accepted responsibility for their ideas or feelings;

…opened up to receive others’ ideas or feelings;

…experimented and took risks with ideas or feelings;

…helped others to own up, be open, and take risks;

…did not own up; were not open; did not take risks; and did not help others in any of these activities.

A second scoring system was developed to produce a quantitative index of the norms of the executive culture. There were both positive and negative norms. The positive norms were:

1. Individuality, especially rewarding behavior that focused on and valued the uniqueness of each individual’s ideas and feelings.

2. Concern for others’ ideas and feelings.

3. Trust in others’ ideas and feelings.

The negative norms were:

1. Conformity to others’ ideas and feelings.

2. Antagonism toward these ideas and feelings.

3. Mistrust of these ideas and feelings.

In addition to our observations of the men at work, at least one semistructured interview was conducted with each executive. All of these interviews were likewise taped, and the typewritten protocols served as the basis for further analysis.

* For a detailed discussion of the system of categories, and other aspects of methodology, see my book, Organization and Innovation (Homewood, Illinois, Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1965).

Words vs. Actions

According to top management, the effectiveness of decision-making activities depends on the degree of innovation, risk taking, flexibility, and trust in the executive system. (Risk taking is defined here as any act where the executive risks his self-esteem. This could be a moment, for example, when he goes against the group view; when he tells someone, especially the person with the highest power, something negative about his impact on the organization; or when he seeks to put millions of dollars in a new investment.)

Nearly 95% of the executives in our study emphasize that an organization is only as good as its top people. They constantly repeat the importance of their responsibility to help themselves and others to develop their abilities. Almost as often they report that the qualities just mentioned—motivation, risk taking, and so on—are key characteristics of any successful executive system. “People problems” head the list as the most difficult, perplexing, and crucial.

In short, the executives vote overwhelmingly for executive systems where the contributions of each executive can be maximized and where innovation, risk taking, flexibility, and trust reign supreme. Nevertheless, the behavior of these same executives tends to create decision-making processes that are not very effective. Their behavior can be fitted into two basic patterns:

Pattern A—thoughtful, rational, and mildly competitive. This is the behavior most frequently observed during the decision-making meetings. Executives following this pattern own up to their ideas in a style that emphasizes a serious concern for ideas. As they constantly battle for scarce resources and “sell” their views, their openness to others’ ideas is relatively high, not because of a sincere interest in learning about the point of view of others, but so they can engage in a form of “one-upmanship”—that is, gain information about the others’ points of view in order to politely discredit them.

Pattern B—competitive first, thoughtful and rational second. In this pattern, conformity to ideas replaces concern for ideas as the strongest norm. Also, antagonism to ideas is higher—in many cases higher than openness to ideas. The relatively high antagonism scores usually indicate, in addition to high competitiveness, a high degree of conflict and pent-up feelings.

Exhibit I summarizes data for four illustrative groups of managers—two groups with Pattern A characteristics and two with Pattern B characteristics.

Exhibit I. Management Groups with Pattern A and Pattern B Characteristics

Practical consequences

In both patterns executives are rarely observed:

…taking risks or experimenting with new ideas or feelings;

…helping others to own up, be open, and take risks;

…using a style of behavior that supports the norm of individuality and trust as well as mistrust;

…expressing feelings, positive or negative.

These results should not be interpreted as implying that the executives do not have feelings. We know from the interviews that many of the executives have strong feelings indeed. However, the overwhelming majority (84%) feel that it is a sign of immaturity to express feelings openly during decision-making meetings. Nor should the results be interpreted to mean that the executives do not enjoy risk taking. The data permit us to conclude only that few risk-taking actions were observed during the meetings. (Also, we have to keep in mind that the executives were always observed in groups; it may be that their behavior in groups varies significantly from their behavior as individuals.)

Before I attempt to give my views about the reasons for the discrepancy between executives’ words and actions, I should like to point out that these results are not unique to business organizations. I have obtained similar behavior patterns from leaders in education, research, the ministry, trade unions, and government. Indeed, one of the fascinating questions for me is why so many different people in so many different kinds of organizations tend to manifest similar problems.

Why the Discrepancy?

The more I observe such problems in different organizations possessing different technologies and varying greatly in size, the more I become impressed with the importance of the role played by the values or assumptions top people hold on the nature of effective human relationships and the best ways to run an organization.

Basic values

In the studies so far I have isolated three basic values that seem to be very important:

1. The significant human relationships are the ones which have to do with achieving the organization’s objective. My studies of over 265 different types and sizes of meetings indicate that executives almost always tend to focus their behavior on “getting the job done.” In literally thousands of units of behavior, almost none are observed where the men spend some time in analyzing and maintaining their group’s effectiveness. This is true even though in many meetings the group’s effectiveness “bogged down” and the objectives were not being reached because of interpersonal factors. When the executives are interviewed and asked why they did not spend some time in examining the group operations or processes, they reply that they were there to get a job done. They add: “If the group isn’t effective, it is up to the leader to get it back on the track by directing it.”

2. Cognitive rationality is to be emphasized; feelings and emotions are to be played down. This value influences executives to see cognitive, intellectual discussions as “relevant,” “good,” “work,” and so on. Emotional and interpersonal discussions tend to be viewed as “irrelevant,” “immature,” “not work,” and so on.

As a result, when emotions and interpersonal variables become blocks to group effectiveness, all the executives report feeling that they should not deal with them. For example, in the event of an emotional disagreement, they would tell the members to “get back to facts” or “keep personalities out of this.”

3. Human relationships are most effectively influenced through unilateral direction, coercion, and control, as well as by rewards and penalties that sanction all three values. This third value of direction and control is implicit in the chain of command and also in the elaborate managerial controls that have been developed within organizations.

Influence on operations

The impact of these values can be considerable. For example, to the extent that individuals dedicate themselves to the value of intellectual rationality and “getting the job done,” they will tend to be aware of and emphasize the intellectual aspects of issues in an organization and (consciously or unconsciously) to suppress the interpersonal and emotional aspects, especially those which do not seem relevant to achieving the task.

As the interpersonal and emotional aspects of behavior become suppressed, organizational norms that coerce individuals to hide their feelings or to disguise them and bring them up as technical, intellectual problems will tend to arise.

Under these conditions the individual may tend to find it very difficult to develop competence in dealing with feelings and interpersonal relationships. Also, in a world where the expression of feelings is not valued, individuals may build personal and organizational defenses to help them suppress their own feelings or inhibit others in such expression. Or they may refuse to consider ideas which, if explored, could expose suppressed feelings.

Such a defensive reaction in an organization could eventually inhibit creativity and innovation during decision making. The participants might learn to limit themselves to those ideas and values that were not threatening. They might also decrease their openness to new ideas and values. And as the degree of openness decreased, the capacity to experiment would also decrease, and fear of taking risks would increase. This would reduce the probability of experimentation, thus decreasing openness to new ideas still further and constricting risk taking even more than formerly. We would thereby have a closed circuit which could become an important cause of loss of vitality in an organization.

Some Consequences

Aside from the impact of values on vitality, what are some other consequences of the executive behavior patterns earlier described on top management decision making and on the effective functioning of the organization? For the sake of brevity, I shall include only examples of those consequences that were found to exist in one form or another in all organizations studied.

Restricted commitment

One of the most frequent findings is that in major decisions that are introduced by the president, there tends to be less than open discussion of the issues, and the commitment of the officers tends to be less than complete (although they may assure the president to the contrary). For instance, consider what happened in one organization where a major administrative decision made during the period of the research was the establishment of several top management committees to explore basic long-range problems:

As is customary with major decisions, the president discussed it in advance at a meeting of the executive committee. He began the meeting by circulating, as a basis for discussion, a draft of the announcement of the committees. Most of the members’ discussion was concerned with raising questions about the wording of the proposal:

• “Is the word action too strong?”

• “I recommend that we change ‘steps can be taken’ to ‘recommendations can be made.’”

• “We’d better change the word ‘lead’ to ‘maintain.’”

As the discussion seemed to come to an end, one executive said he was worried that the announcement of the committees might be interpreted by the people below as an implication “that the executive committee believes the organization is in trouble. Let’s get the idea in that all is well.”

There was spontaneous agreement by all executives: “Hear, hear!”

A brief silence was broken by another executive who apparently was not satisfied with the concept of the committees. He raised a series of questions. The manner in which it was done was interesting. As he raised each issue, he kept assuring the president and the group that he was not against the concept. He just wanted to be certain that the executive committee was clear on what it was doing. For example, he assured them:

• “I’m not clear. Just asking.”

• “I’m trying to get a better picture.”

• “I’m just trying to get clarification.”

• “Just so that we understand what the words mean.”

The president nodded in agreement, but he seemed to become slightly impatient. He remarked that many of these problems would not arise if the members of these new committees took an overall company point of view. An executive commented (laughingly), “Oh, I’m for motherhood too!”

The proposal was tabled in order for the written statement to be revised and discussed further during the next meeting. It appeared that the proposal was the president’s personal “baby,” and the executive committee members would naturally go along with it. The most responsibility some felt was that they should raise questions so the president would be clear about his (not their) decision.

At the next meeting the decision-making process was the same as at the first. The president circulated copies of the revised proposal. During this session a smaller number of executives asked questions. Two pushed (with appropriate care) the notion that the duties of one of the committees were defined too broadly.

The president began to defend his proposal by citing an extremely long list of examples, indicating that in his mind “reasonable” people should find the duties clear. This comment and the long list of examples may have communicated to others a feeling that the president was becoming impatient. When he finished, there was a lengthy silence. The president then turned to one of the executives and asked directly, “Why are you worried about this?” The executive explained, then quickly added that as far as he could see the differences were not major ones and his point of view could be integrated with the president’s by “changing some words.”

The president agreed to the changes, looked up, and asked, “I take it now there is common agreement?” All executives replied “yes” or nodded their heads affirmatively.

As I listened, I had begun to wonder about the commitment of the executive committee members to the idea. In subsequent interviews I asked each about his view of the proposal. Half felt that it was a good proposal. The other half had reservations ranging from moderate to serious. However, being loyal members, they would certainly do their best to make it work, they said.

Subordinate gamesmanship

I can best illustrate the second consequence by citing from a study of the effectiveness of product planning and program review activities in another of the organizations studied:

It was company policy that peers at any given level should make the decisions. Whenever they could not agree or whenever a decision went beyond their authority, the problem was supposed to be sent to the next higher level. The buck passing stopped at the highest level. A meeting with the president became a great event. Beforehand a group would “dry run” its presentation until all were satisfied that they could present their view effectively.

Few difficulties were observed when the meeting was held to present a recommendation agreed to by all at the lower levels. The difficulties arose when “negative” information had to be fed upward. For example, a major error in the program, a major delay, or a major disagreement among the members was likely to cause such trouble.

The dynamics of these meetings was very interesting. In one case the problem to present was a major delay in a development project. In the dry run the subordinates planned to begin the session with information that “updated” the president. The information was usually presented in such a way that slowly and carefully the president was alerted to the fact that a major problem was about to be announced. One could hear such key phrases as:

• “We are a bit later than expected.”

• “We have had greater difficulties than expected.”

• “It is now clear that no one should have promised what we did.”

These phrases were usually followed by some reassuring statement such as:

• “However, we’re on top of this.”

• “Things are really looking better now.”

• “Although we are late, we have advanced the state of the art.”

• “If you give us another three months, we are certain that we can solve this problem.”

To the observer’s eyes, it is difficult to see how the president could deny the request. Apparently he felt the same way because he granted it. However, he took nearly 20 minutes to say that this shocked him; he was wondering if everyone was really doing everything they could; this was a serious program; this was not the way he wanted to see things run; he was sure they would agree with him; and he wanted their assurances that this would be the final delay.

A careful listening to the tape after the meeting brought out the fact that no subordinate gave such assurances. They simply kept saying that they were doing their best; they had poured a lot into this; or they had the best technical know-how working on it.

Another interesting observation is that most subordinates in this company, especially in presentations to the president, tended to go along with certain unwritten rules:

1. Before you give any bad news, give good news. Especially emphasize the capacity of the department to work hard and to rebound from a failure.

2. Play down the impact of a failure by emphasizing how close you came to achieving the target or how soon the target can be reached. If neither seems reasonable, emphasize how difficult it is to define such targets, and point out that because the state of the art is so primitive, the original commitment was not a wise one.

3. In a meeting with the president it is unfair to take advantage of another department that is in trouble, even if it is a “natural enemy.” The sporting thing to do is say something nice about the other department and offer to help it in any way possible. (The offer is usually not made in concrete form, nor does the department in difficulty respond with the famous phrase, “What do you have in mind?”)

The subordinates also were in agreement that too much time was spent in long presentations in order to make the president happy. The president, however, confided to the researcher that he did not enjoy listening to long and, at times, dry presentations (especially when he had seen most of the key data anyway). However, he felt that it was important to go through this because it might give the subordinates a greater sense of commitment to the problem!

Lack of awareness

One of our most common observations in company studies is that executives lack awareness of their own behavioral patterns as well as of the negative impact of their behavior on others. This is not to imply that they are completely unaware; each individual usually senses some aspects of a problem. However, we rarely find an individual or group of individuals who is aware of enough of the scope and depth of a problem so that the need for effective action can be fully understood.

For example, during the study of the decision-making processes of the president and the 9 vice presidents of a firm with nearly 3,000 employees, I concluded that the members unknowingly behaved in such a way as not to encourage risk taking, openness, expression of feelings, and cohesive, trusting relationships. But subsequent interviews with the 10 top executives showed that they held a completely different point of view from mine. They admitted that negative feelings were not expressed, but said the reason was that “we trust each other and respect each other.” According to 6 of the men, individuality was high and conformity low; where conformity was agreed to be high, the reason given was the necessity of agreeing with the man who is boss. According to 8 of the men, “We help each other all the time.” Issues loaded with conflict were not handled during meetings, it was reported, for these reasons:

• “We should not discuss emotional disagreements before the executive committee because when people are emotional, they are not rational.”

• “We should not air our dirty linen in front of the people who may come in to make a presentation.”

• “Why take up people’s time with subjective debates?”

• “Most members are not acquainted with all the details. Under our system the person who presents the issues has really thought them through.”

• “Pre-discussion of issues helps to prevent anyone from sandbagging the executive committee.”

• “Rarely emotional; when it does happen, you can pardon it.”

The executive committee climate or emotional tone was characterized by such words as:

• “Not critical of each other.”

• “Frank and no tensions because we’ve known each other for years.”

How was I to fit the executives’ views with mine? I went back and listened to all the interviews again. As I analyzed the tapes, I began to realize that an interesting set of contradictions arose during many of the interviews. In the early stages of the interviews the executives tended to say things that they contradicted later; Exhibit II contains examples of contradictions repeated by 6 or more of the 10 top executives.

Exhibit II. Contradictory Statements

What accounts for these contradictions? My explanation is that over time the executives had come to mirror, in their behavior, the values of their culture (e.g., be rational, nonemotional, diplomatically open, and so on). They had created a culture that reinforced their own leadership styles. If an executive wanted to behave differently, he probably ran the risk of being considered a deviant. In most of the cases the executives decided to forgo this risk, and they behaved like the majority. These men, in order to live with themselves, probably had to develop various defenses and blinders about their acquiescence to an executive culture that may not have been the one they personally preferred and valued.

Incidentally, in this group there were two men who had decided to take the other route. Both men were viewed by the others as “a bit rough at the edges” or “a little too aggressive.”

To check the validity of some of the findings reported, we interviewed the top 25 executives below the executive committee. If our analysis was correct, we knew, then they should tend to report that the members of the executive committee were low in openness to uncomfortable information, risk taking, trust, and capacity to deal with conflicts openly, and high in conformity. The results were as predicted (see Exhibit III).

Exhibit III. How the Executive Committee Was Rated by 25 Executives Below It

Blind spots

Another result found in all organizations studied is the tendency for executives to be unaware of the negative feelings that their subordinates have about them. This finding is not startling in view of the fact that the executive problem-solving processes do not tend to reward the upward communication of information about interpersonal issues that is emotionally laden and risky to communicate. To illustrate:

In one organization, all but one of the top executive committee members reported that their relationships with their subordinates were “relatively good to excellent.” When asked how they judged their relationships, most of the executives responded with such statements as: “They do everything that I ask for willingly,” and “We talk together frequently and openly.”

The picture from the middle management men who were the immediate subordinates was different. Apparently, top management was unaware that:

• 71% of the middle managers did not know where they stood with their superiors; they considered their relationships as ambiguous, and they were not aware of such important facts as how they were being evaluated.

• 65% of the middle managers did not know what qualities led to success in their organizations.

• 87% felt that conflicts were very seldom coped with; and that when they were, the attempts tended to be inadequate.

• 65% thought that the most important unsolved problem of the organization was that the top management was unable to help them overcome the intergroup rivalries, lack of cooperation, and poor communications; 53% said that if they could alter one aspect of their superior’s behavior, it would be to help him see the “dog eat dog” communication problems that existed in middle management.

• 59% evaluated top management effectiveness as not too good or about average; and 62% reported that the development of a cohesive management team was the second most important unsolved problem.

• 82% of the middle managers wished that the status of their function and job could be increased but doubted if they could communicate this openly to the top management.

Interestingly, in all the cases that I have observed where the president asked for a discussion of any problems that the top and middle management men present thought important, the problems mentioned above were never raised.

Rather, the most frequently mentioned problem (74% of the cases) was the overload problem. The executives and managers reported that they were overloaded and that the situation was getting worse. The president’s usual reply was that he appreciated their predicament, but “that is life.” The few times he asked if the men had any suggestions, he received such replies as “more help,” “fewer meetings,” “fewer reports,” “delay of schedules,” and so on. As we will see, few of these suggestions made sense, since the men were asking either for increases in costs or for a decrease in the very controls that the top management used to administer the organization.

Distrust & antagonism

Another result of the behavior patterns earlier described is that management tends to keep promotions semisecret and most of the actual reasons for executive changes completely secret. Here is an example from an organization whose board we studied in some detail over a period of two years:

The executives complained of three practices of the board about which the board members were apparently unaware: (1) the constant alteration of organizational positions and charts, and keeping the most up-to-date versions semiconfidential; (2) shifting top executives without adequate discussion with all executives involved and without clearly communicating the real reasons for the move; and (3) developing new departments with product goals that overlapped and competed with the goals of already existing departments.

The board members admitted these practices but tended not to see them as being incompatible with the interests of the organization. For example, to take the first complaint, they defended their practice with such statements as: “If you tell them everything, all they do is worry, and we get a flood of rumors”; “The changes do not really affect them”; and, “It will only cut in on their busy schedule and interrupt their productivity.”

The void of clear-cut information from the board was, however, filled in by the executives. Their explanations ranged from such statements as “They must be changing things because they are not happy with the way things are going” to “The unhappiness is so strong they do not tell us.” Even the executives who profited from some of these moves reported some concern and bewilderment. For example, three reported instances where they had been promoted over some “old-timers.” In all cases they were told to “soft-pedal the promotion aspect” until the old-timers were diplomatically informed. Unfortunately, it took months to inform the latter men, and in some cases it was never done.

There was another practice of the board that produced difficulties in the organization:

Department heads cited the board’s increasing intervention into the detailed administration of a department when its profit picture looked shaky. This practice was, from these subordinates’ view, in violation of the stated philosophy of decentralization.

When asked, board members tended to explain this practice by saying that it was done only when they had doubts about the department head’s competence, and then it was always in the interests of efficiency. When they were alerted about a department that was not doing well, they believed that the best reaction was to tighten controls, “take a closer and more frequent look,” and “make sure the department head is on top of things.” They quickly added that they did not tell the man in question they were beginning to doubt his competence for fear of upsetting him. Thus, again we see how the values of de-emphasizing the expression of negative feelings and the emphasizing of controls influenced the board’s behavior.

The department heads, on the other hand, reported different reactions. “Why are they bothered with details? Don’t they trust me? If not, why don’t they say so?” Such reactions tended to produce more conformity, antagonism, mistrust, and fear of experimenting.

Still another board practice was the “diplomatic” rejection of an executive’s idea that was, in the eyes of the board, offbeat, a bit too wild, or not in keeping with the corporate mission. The reasons given by the board for not being open about the evaluation again reflected adherence to the pyramidal values. For example, a board member would say, “We do not want to embarrass them,” or “If you really tell them, you might restrict creativity.”

This practice tended to have precisely the impact that the superiors wished to avoid. The subordinates reacted by asking, “Why don’t they give me an opportunity to really explain it?” or “What do they mean when they suggest that the ‘timing is not right’ or ‘funds are not currently available’?”

Processes damaged

It is significant that defensive activities like those described are rarely observed during group meetings dealing with minor or relatively routine decisions. These activities become most noticeable when the decision is an important one in terms of dollars or in terms of the impact on the various departments in the organization. The forces toward ineffectiveness operate most strongly during the important decision-making meetings. The group and organizational defenses operate most frequently when they can do the most harm to decision-making effectiveness.

Another interesting finding is that the more effective and more committed executives tend to be upset about these facts, whereas the less effective, less committed people tend simply to lament them. They also tend to take on an “I told them so” attitude—one of resignation and noninvolvement in correcting the situation. In short, it is the better executives who are negatively affected.

What Can Be Done?

What can the executive do to change this situation?

I wish that I could answer this question as fully as I should like to. Unfortunately, I cannot. Nevertheless, there are some suggestions I can make.

Blind alleys

First, let me state what I believe will not work.

Learning about these problems by listening to lectures, reading about them, or exploring them through cases is not adequate; an article or book can pose some issues and get thinking started, but—in this area, at least—it cannot change behavior. Thus, in one study with 60 top executives:

Lectures were given and cases discussed on this subject for nearly a week. A test at the end of the week showed that the executives rated the lecturers very high, liked the cases, and accepted the diagnoses. Yet when they attempted to apply their new-found knowledge outside the learning situation, most were unable to do so. The major problem was that they had not learned how to make these new ideas come to life in their behavior.

As one executive stated, pointing to his head: “I know up here what I should do, but when it comes to a real meeting, I behave in the same old way. It sure is frustrating.”1

Learning about these problems through a detailed diagnosis of executives’ behavior is also not enough. For example:

I studied a top management group for nearly four months through interviews and tape recordings of their decision-making meetings. Eventually, I fed back the analysis. The executives agreed with the diagnosis as well as with the statement by one executive that he found it depressing. Another executive, however, said he now felt that he had a clearer and more coherent picture of some of the causes of their problems, and he was going to change his behavior. I predicted that he would probably find that he would be unable to change his behavior—and even if he did change, his subordinates, peers, and superiors might resist dealing with him in the new way.

The executive asked, “How can you be so sure that we can’t change?” I responded that I knew of no case where managers were able to alter successfully their behavior, their group dynamics, and so forth by simply realizing intellectually that such a change was necessary. The key to success was for them to be able to show these new strategies in their behavior. To my knowledge, behavior of this type, groups with these dynamics, and organizational cultures endowed with these characteristics were very difficult to change. What kind of thin-skinned individuals would they be, how brittle would their groups and their organizations be if they could be altered that easily?

Three of the executives decided that they were going to prove the prediction to be incorrect. They took my report and studied it carefully. In one case the executive asked his subordinates to do the same. Then they tried to alter their behavior. According to their own accounts, they were unable to do so. The only changes they reported were (1) a softening of the selling activities, (2) a reduction of their aggressive persuasion, and (3) a genuine increase in their asking for the subordinates’ views.

My subsequent observations and interviews uncovered the fact that the first two changes were mistrusted by the subordinates, who had by now adapted to the old behavior of their superiors. They tended to play it carefully and to be guarded. This hesitation aggravated the executives, who felt that their subordinates were not responding to their new behavior with the enthusiasm that they (the superiors) had expected.

However, the executives did not deal with this issue openly. They kept working at trying to be rational, patient, and rewarding. The more irritated they became and the more they showed this irritation in their behavior, the more the subordinates felt that the superiors’ “new” behavior was a gimmick.

Eventually, the process of influencing subordinates slowed down so much that the senior men returned to their more controlling styles. The irony was that in most cases the top executives interpreted the subordinates’ behavior as proof that they needed to be needled and pushed, while the subordinates interpreted the top managers’ behavior as proof that they did not trust their assistants and would never change.

The reason I doubt that these approaches will provide anything but temporary cures is that they do not go far enough. If changes are going to be made in the behavior of an executive, if trust is to be developed, if risk taking is to flourish, he must be placed in a different situation. He should be helped to (a) expose his leadership style so that he and others can take a look at its true impact; (b) deepen his awareness of himself and the dynamics of effective leadership; and (c) strive for these goals under conditions where he is in control of the amount, pace, and depth of learning.

These conditions for learning are difficult to achieve. Ideally, they require the help of a professional consultant. Also, it would be important to get away from the organization—its interruptions, pressures, and daily administrative tensions.

Value of questions

The executive can strive to be aware that he is probably programmed with a set of values which cause him to behave in ways that are not always helpful to others and which his subordinates will not discuss frankly even when they believe he is not being helpful. He can also strive to find time to uncover, through careful questioning, his impact on others. Once in a while a session that is focused on the “How am I doing?” question can enlighten the executive and make his colleagues more flexible in dealing with him.

One simple question I have heard several presidents ask their vice presidents with success is: “Tell me what, if anything, I do that tends to prevent (or help) your being the kind of vice president you wish to be?” These presidents are careful to ask these questions during a time when they seem natural (e.g., performance review sessions), or they work hard ahead of time to create a climate so that such a discussion will not take the subordinate by surprise.

Some presidents feel uncomfortable in raising these questions, and others point out that the vice presidents are also uncomfortable. I can see how both would have such feelings. A chief executive officer may feel that he is showing weakness by asking his subordinates about his impact. The subordinate may or may not feel this way, but he may sense that his chief does, and that is enough to make him uncomfortable.

Yet in two companies I have studied where such questions were asked, superiors and subordinates soon learned that authority which gained strength by a lack of openness was weak and brittle, whereas authority resting on open feedback from below was truly strong and viable.

Working with the qroup

Another step that an executive can take is to vow not to accept group ineffectiveness as part of life. Often I have heard people say, “Groups are no damned good; strong leadership is what is necessary.” I agree that many groups are ineffective. I doubt, however, if either of the two leadership patterns described earlier will help the situation. As we have seen, both patterns tend to make the executive group increasingly less effective.

If my data are valid, the search process in executive decision making has become so complicated that group participation is essential. No one man seems to be able to have all the knowledge necessary to make an effective decision. If individual contributions are necessary in group meetings, it is important that a climate be created that does not discourage innovation, risk taking, and honest leveling between managers in their conversations with one another. The value of a group is to maximize individual contributions.

Interestingly, the chief executive officers in these studies are rarely observed making policy decisions in the classic sense, viz., critical selections from several alternatives and determination of future directions to be taken. This does not mean that they shy away from taking responsibility. Quite the contrary. Many report that they enjoy making decisions by themselves. Their big frustration comes from realizing that most of the major decisions they face are extremely complex and require the coordinated, honest inputs of many different executives. They are impatient at the slowness of meetings, the increasingly quantitative nature of the inputs, and, in many cases, their ignorance of what the staff groups did to the decision inputs long before they received them.

The more management deals with complexity by the use of computers and quantitative approaches, the more it will be forced to work with inputs of many different people, and the more important will be the group dynamics of decision-making meetings. If anyone doubts this, let him observe the dry runs subordinates go through to get a presentation ready for the top. He will observe, I believe, that much data are included and excluded by subordinates on the basis of what they believe those at the top can hear.

In short, one of the main tasks of the chief executive is to build and maintain an effective decision-making network. I doubt that he has much choice except to spend time in exploring how well his group functions.

Such explorations could occur during the regular workday. For example:

In one organization the president began by periodically asking members of his top group, immediately after a decision was made, to think back during the meeting and describe when they felt that the group was not being as effective as they wished. How could these conditions be altered?

As trust and openness increased, the members began to level with each other as to when they were inhibited, irritated, suppressed, confused, and withholding information. The president tried to be as encouraging as he could, and he especially rewarded people who truly leveled. Soon the executives began to think of mechanisms they could build into their group functioning so they would be alerted to these group problems and correct them early. As one man said, “We have not eliminated all our problems, but we are building a competence in our group to deal with them effectively if and when they arise.”

Utilizing feedback

Another useful exercise is for the superior and his group members to tape-record a decision-making meeting, especially one which is expected to be difficult. At a later date, the group members can gather and listen to the tape. I believe it is safe to say that simply listening to the tape is an education in itself. If one can draw from skilled company or outside help, then useful analyses can be made of group or individual behavior.

Recently, I experimented with this procedure with an “inside” board of directors of a company. The directors met once a month and listened to tape recordings of their monthly board meetings. With my help they analyzed their behavior, trying to find how they could improve their individual and group effectiveness. Listening to tapes became a very involving experience for them. They spent nearly four hours in the first meeting discussing less than ten minutes of the tape.

‘Binds’ Created.

One of the major gains of these sessions was that the board members became aware of the “binds” they were creating for each other and of the impact they each had on the group’s functioning. Thus:

Executive A was frequently heard antagonizing Executive B by saying something that B perceived as “needling.” For example, A might seem to be questioning B’s competence. “Look here,” he would say, “anyone who can do simple arithmetic should realize that…”

Executive B responded by fighting. B’s way of fighting back was to utilize his extremely high capacity to verbalize and intellectualize. B’s favorite tactic was to show A where he missed five important points and where his logic was faulty.

Executive A became increasingly upset as the “barrage of logic” found its mark. He tended to counteract by (a) remaining silent but manifesting a sense of being flustered and becoming red-faced; and/or (b) insisting that his logic was sound even though he did not express it in “highfalutin language” as did B.

Executive B pushed harder (presumably to make A admit he was wrong) by continuing his “barrage of logic” or implying that A could not see his errors because he was upset.

Executive A would respond to this by insisting that he was not upset. “The point you are making is so simple, why, anyone can see it. Why should I be upset?”

Executive B responded by pushing harder and doing more intellectualizing. When Executive A eventually reached his breaking point, he too began to shout and fight.

At this point, Executives C, D, and E could be observed withdrawing until A and B wore each other out.

Progress Achieved.

As a result of the meetings, the executives reported in interviews, board members experienced fewer binds, less hostility, less frustration, and more constructive work. One member wondered if the group had lost some of its “zip,” but the others disagreed. Here is an excerpt from the transcript of one discussion on this point:

Executive A: My feeling is, as I have said, that we have just opened this thing up, and I for one feel that we have benefited a great deal from it. I think I have improved; maybe I am merely reflecting the fact that you [Executive B] have improved. But at least I think there has been improvement in our relationship. I also see signs of not as good a relationship in other places as there might be.

I think on the whole we are much better off today than we were a year ago. I think there is a whole lot less friction today than there was a year ago, but there’s still enough of it.

Now we have a much clearer organization setup; if we were to sit down here and name the people, we would probably all name exactly the same people. I don’t think there is much question about who should be included and who should not be included; we’ve got a pretty clean organization.

Executive B: You’re talking now about asking the consultant about going on with this week’s session?

Executive A: It would be very nice to have the consultant if he can do it; then we should see how we can do it without him, but it’d be better with him.

Executive B: But that’s the step, as I understand it, that should be taken at this stage. Is that right?

Executive A: Well, I would certainly favor doing something; I don’t know what. I’m not making a specific recommendation; I just don’t like to let go of it.

Executive C: What do you think?

Executive D: I’m not as optimistic as A. I wonder if anybody here agrees with me that maybe we haven’t made as much progress as we think. I’ve personally enjoyed these experiences, and I’d like to see them continued.

Executive A: Would you like to venture to say why I think we have made progress and why I might be fooled?

Executive D: Well, I think maybe you are in the worst position to evaluate progress because if the worst possible thing that can happen is for people to no longer fight and struggle, but to say, “yes, sir,” you might call that progress. That might be the worst thing that could happen, and I sort of sense some degree of resignation—I don’t think it’s progress. I don’t know. I might be all alone in this. What do you think?

Executive C: On one level it is progress. Whether it is institutional progress and whether it produces commensurate institutional benefits is a debatable question. It may in fact do so. I think it’s very clear that there is in our meetings and in individual contact less heat, less overt friction, petulance, tension, than certainly was consistently the case. Do you agree?

Executive D: Yes, I think so.

Executive C: It has made us a great deal more aware of the extent and nature of the friction and clearly has made all of us intent on fighting less. There’s some benefit to it; but there are some drawbacks.

Executive A: Well, if you and D are right, I would say for that reason we need more of the program.

Laboratory training

Another possibility is for the executive to attend a program designed to help increase competence in this area, such as laboratory education and its various offshoots (“T-groups,” the “managerial grid,” “conflict management labs,” and so on2). These learning experiences are available at various university and National Training Laboratory executive programs. They can also be tailor-made for the individual organization.

I believe outside programs offer the better way of becoming acquainted with this type of learning. Bear in mind, though, that since typically only one or two executives attend from the same organization, the biggest payoff is for the individual. The inside program provides greater possibilities for payoff to the organization.

At the same time, however, it should also be kept in mind that in-house programs can be dangerous to the organization. I would recommend that a thorough study be made ahead of time to ascertain whether or not a laboratory educational experience would be helpful to company executives individually and to the organization.

Open discussion

I have never observed a group whose members wanted it to decay. I have never studied a group or an organization that was decaying where there were not some members who were aware that decay was occurring. Accordingly, one key to group and organizational effectiveness is to get this knowledge out into the open and to discuss it thoroughly. The human “motors” of the group and the organization have to be checked periodically, just as does the motor of an automobile. Without proper maintenance, all will fail.

1. See my article, “Explorations in Interpersonal Competence II,” Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 1, No. 3, 1965, p. 255.

2. For detailed discussions of such variations see my article, “T-Groups for Organizational Effectiveness,” HBR March–April 1964, p. 60; R. R. Blake, J. S. Mouton, L. B. Barnes, and L. E. Greiner, “Breakthrough in Organization Development,” HBR November–December 1964, p. 135; and Edgar Schein and Warren Bennis, Personal and Organizational Change Through Laboratory Methods (New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1965).

A version of this article appeared in the March 1966 issue of Harvard Business Review.