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586 PART TWO ❯❯ ETHICAL ISSUES treated as commons. Further growth of population and growth in the per capita conversion of natural resources into pollutants require that the system of the commons be modified or abandoned in the disposal of “externalities.” “But it isn’t their fault! How can we blame the poor people who are caught in an emergency? Why must we punish them?” The concepts of blame and punishment are irrelevant. The question is, what are the operational consequences of establishing a world food bank? If it is open to every country every time a need develops, slovenly rulers will not be motivated to take Joseph’s advice. Why should they? Others will bail them out whenever they are in trouble. Some countries will make deposits in the world food bank and others will withdraw from it: there will be almost no overlap. Calling such a depositorytransfer unit a “bank” is stretching the metaphor of bank beyond its elastic limits. The proposers, of course, never call attention to the metaphorical nature of the word they use. THE RATCHET EFFECT An “international food bank” is really, then, not a true bank but a disguised one-way transfer device for moving wealth from rich countries to poor. In the absence of such a bank, in a world inhabited by individually responsible sovereign nations, the population of each nation would repeatedly go through a cycle of the sort shown in Figure 1. P2 is greater than P1, either in absolute numbers or because a deterioration of the food supply has removed the safety factor and produced a dangerously low ratio RUIN IN THE COMMONS The fundamental error of the sharing ethics is that it leads to the tragedy of the commons. Under a system of private property the man (or group of men) who own property recognize their responsibility to care for it, for if they don’t they will eventually suffer. A farmer, for instance, if he is intelligent, will allow no more cattle in a pasture than its carrying capacity justifies. If he overloads the pasture, weeds take over, erosion sets in, and the owner loses in the long run. But if a pasture is run as a commons open to all, the right of each to use it is not matched by an operational responsibility to take care of it. It is no use asking independent herdsmen in a commons to act responsibly, for they dare not. The considerate herdsman who refrains from overloading the commons suffers more than a selfish one who says his needs are greater. (As Leo Durocher says, “Nice guys finish last.”) Christian-Marxian idealism is counterproductive. That it sounds nice is no excuse. With distribution systems, as with individual morality, good intentions are no substitute for good performance. A social system is stable only if it is insensitive to errors. To the Christian-Marxian idealist a selfish person is a sort of “error.” Prosperity in the system of the commons cannot survive errors. If everyone would only restrain himself, all would be well; but it takes only one less than everyone to ruin a system of voluntary restraint. In a crowded world of less than perfect human beings-and we will never know any other–mutual ruin is inevitable in the commons. This is the core of the tragedy of the commons. One of the major tasks of education today is to create such an awareness of the dangers of the commons that people will be able to recognize its many varieties, however disguised. There is pollution of the air and water because these media are Fig. 1. The population cycle of a nation that has no effective, conscious population control, and which receives no aid from the outside. P2 is greater than P1. “overpopulation”: safety factor exhausted at “carrying capacity”: with safety factor P2 P1 “emergency” Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

1 is greater than Pn, and the absolute magnitude of the “emergencies” escalates. Ultimately the entire system crashes. The crash is not shown, and few can imagine it. P2 P1 “emergency” “emergency” “emergency” P3 (input from world food bank) P4 (input from world food bank) (and so on ...) (input from world food bank) Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

588 PART TWO ❯❯ ETHICAL ISSUES decent working conditions. Chavez understands the ethics of a lifeboat. The interests of the employers of cheap labor are well served by the silence of the intelligentsia of the country. WASPS—White Anglo-Saxon Protestants— are particularly reluctant to call for a closing of the doors to immigration for fear of being called ethnocentric bigots. It was, therefore, an occasion of pure delight for this particular WASP to be present at a meeting when the points he would like to have made were made better by a non-WASP speaking to other non-WASPS. It was in Hawaii, and most of the people in the room were second-level Hawaiian officials of Japanese ancestry. All Hawaiians are keenly aware of the limits of their environment, and the speaker had asked how it might be practically and constitutionally possible to close the doors to more immigrants to the islands. (To Hawaiians, immigrants from the other 49 states are as much of a threat as those from other nations. There is only so much room in the islands, and the islanders know it. Sophistical arguments that imply otherwise do not impress them.) Yet the Japanese-Americans of Hawaii have active ties with the land of their origin. This point was raised by a Japanese-American member of the audience who asked the Japanese-American speaker: “But how can we shut the doors now? We have many friends and relations in Japan that we’d like to bring to Hawaii some day so that they can enjoy this beautiful land. The speaker smiled sympathetically and responded slowly: “Yes, but we have children now and someday we’ll have grandchildren. We can bring more people here from Japan only by giving away some of the land that we hope to pass on to our grandchildren some day. What right do we have to do that?” To be generous with one’s own possessions is one thing; to be generous with posterity’s is quite another. This, I think, is the point that must be gotten across to those who would, from a commendable love of distributive justice, institute a ruinous system of the commons, either in the form of a world food bank or that of unrestricted immigration. Since Such are the implications of the well-meant sharing of food in a world of irresponsible reproduction. World food banks move food to the people, thus facilitating the exhaustion of the environment of the poor. By contrast, unrestricted immigration moves people to the food, thus speeding up the destruction of the environment in rich countries. Why poor people should want to make this transfer is no mystery: but why should rich hosts encourage it? This transfer, like the reverse one, is supported by both selfish interests and humanitarian impulses. The principal selfish interest in unimpeded immigration is easy to identify: it is the interest of the employers of cheap labor, particularly that needed for degrading jobs. We have been deceived about the forces of history by the lines of Emma Lazarus inscribed on the Statue of Liberty: Give me your tired, your poor Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore, Send these, the homeless, tempesttossed, to me: I lift my lamp beside the golden door. The image is one of an infinitely generous earthmother, passively opening her arms to hordes of immigrants who come here on their own initiative. Such an image may have been adequate for the early days of colonization, but by the time these lines were written (1886) the force for immigration was largely manufactured inside our own borders by factory and mine owners who sought cheap labor not to be found among laborers already here. One group of foreigners after another was thus enticed into the United States to work at wretched jobs for wretched wages. At present, it is largely the Mexicans who are being so exploited. It is particularly to the advantage of certain employers that there be many illegal immigrants. Illegal immigrant workers dare not complain about their working conditions for fear of being repatriated. Their presence reduces the bargaining power of all Mexican-American laborers. Cesar Chavez has repeatedly pleaded with congressional committees to close the doors to more Mexicans so that those here can negotiate effectively for higher wages and Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

Chapter 20 ❮❮ Global Justice and Globalization 589 Clearly, the concept of pure justice produces an infinite regress. The law long ago invented statutes of limitations to justify the rejection of pure justice, in the interest of preventing massive disorder. The law zealously defends property rights—but only recent property rights. It is as though the physical principle of exponential decay applies to property rights. Drawing a line in time may be unjust, but any other action is practically worse. We are all the descendants of thieves, and the world’s resources are inequitably distributed, but we must begin the journey to tomorrow from the point where we are today. We cannot remake the past. We cannot, without violent disorder and suffering, give land and resources back to the “original” owners— who are dead anyway. We cannot safely divide the wealth equitably among all present peoples, so long as people reproduce at different rates, because to do so would guarantee that our grandchildren—everyone’s grandchildren—would have only a ruined world to inhabit. MUST EXCLUSION BE ABSOLUTE? To show the logical structure of the immigration problem I have ignored many factors that would enter into real decisions made in a real world. No matter how convincing the logic may be it is probable that we would want, from time to time, to admit a few people from the outside to our lifeboat. Political refugees in particular are likely to cause us to make exceptions: We remember the Jewish refugees from Germany after 1933, and the Hungarian refugees after 1956. Moreover, the interests of national defense, broadly conceived, could justify admitting many men and women of unusual talents, whether refugees or not. (This raises the quality issue, which is not the subject of this essay.) Such exceptions threaten to create runaway population growth inside the lifeboat, i.e., the receiving country. However, the threat can be neutralized by a population policy that includes immigration. An effective policy is one of flexible control. Suppose, for example, that the nation has achieved a stable condition of ZPG, which (say) every speaker is a member of some ethnic group it is always possible to charge him with ethnocentrism. But even after purging an argument of ethnocentrism the rejection of the commons is still valid and necessary if we are to save at least some parts of the world from environmental ruin. Is it not desirable that at least some of the grandchildren of people now living should have a decent place in which to live? THE ASYMMETRY OF DOOR-SHUTTING We must now answer this telling point: “How can you justify slamming the door once you’re inside? You say that immigrants should be kept out. But aren’t we all immigrants, or the descendants of immigrants? Since we refuse to leave, must we not, as a matter of justice and symmetry, admit all others?” It is literally true that we Americans of nonIndian ancestry are the descendants of thieves. Should we not, then, “give back” the land to the Indians; that is, give it to the now-living Americans of Indian ancestry? As an exercise in pure logic I see no way to reject this proposal. Yet I am unwilling to live by it; and I know no one who is. Our reluctance to embrace pure justice may spring from pure selfishness. On the other hand, it may arise from an unspoken recognition of consequences that have not yet been clearly spelled out. Suppose, becoming intoxicated with pure justice, we “Anglos” should decide to turn our land over to the Indians. Since all our other wealth has also been derived from the land, we would have to give that to the Indians, too. Then what would we nonIndians do? Where would we go? There is no open land in the world on which men without capital can make their living (and not much unoccupied land on which men with capital can either). Where would 209 million putatively justice-loving, non-Indian, Americans go? Most of them—in the persons of their ancestors—came from Europe, but they wouldn’t be welcomed back there. Anyway, Europeans have no better title to their land than we to ours. They also would have to give up their homes. (But to whom? And where would they go?) Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

590 PART TWO ❯❯ ETHICAL ISSUES dignity if we are to be guided by Spaceship ethics. Without a world government that is sovereign in reproductive matters mankind lives, in fact, on a number of sovereign lifeboats. For the foreseeable future survival demands that we govern our actions by the ethics of a lifeboat. Posterity will be ill served if we do not. REFERENCES Anonymous. 1974. Wall Street Journal 19 Feb. Borlaug, N . 1973. Civilization’s future: a call for international granaries. Bull. At. Sci. 29: 7–15. Boulding, K. 1966. The economics of the coming Spaceship earth. In H. Jarrett, ed. Environmental Quality in a Growing Economy. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore. Buchanan, W. 1973. Immigration statistics. Equilibrium 1(3): 16–19. Davis, K. 1963. Population. Sci. Amer. 209(3): 62–71. Farvar, M. T., and J. P. Milton. 1972. The Careless Technology. Natural History Press, Garden City, N.Y. Gregg, A. 1955. A medical aspect of the population problem. Science 121: 681–682. Hardin, G. 1966. Chap. 9 in Biology: Its Principles and Implications, 2nd ed. Freeman, San Francisco. –––. 1968. The tragedy of the commons. Science 162: 1243–1248. –––. 1969a Page 18 in Population, Evolution, and Birth Control, 2nd ed. Freeman, San Francisco. –––.1969b. The economics of wilderness. Nat. Hist. 78(6): 20–27. –––. 1972a. Pages 81–82 in Exploring New Ethics for Survival:The Voyage of the Spaceship Beagle. Viking, N.Y. –––. 1972b. Preserving quality on Spaceship Earth. In J. B. Trefethen, ed. Transactions of the ThirtySeventh North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. Wildlife Management Institute, Washington, D.C. –––. 1973. Chap. 23 in Stalking the Wild Taboo. Kaufmann, Los Altos, Cal. Harris, M. 1972. How green the revolution. Nat. Hist. 81(3): 28–30. Langer, S. K. 1942. Philosophy in a New Key. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. permits 1.5 million births yearly. We must suppose that an acceptable system of allocating birth-rights to potential parents is in effect. Now suppose that an inhumane regime in some other part of the world creates a horde of refugees, and that there is a widespread desire to admit some to our country. At the same time, we do not want to sabotage our population control system. Clearly, the rational path to pursue is the following. If we decide to admit 100,000 refugees this year we should compensate for this by reducing the allocation of birth-rights in the following year by a similar amount, that is downward to a total of 1.4 million. In that way we could achieve both humanitarian and population control goals. (And the refugees would have to accept the population controls of the society that admits them. It is not inconceivable that they might be given proportionately fewer rights than the native population.) In a democracy, the admission of immigrants should properly be voted on. But by whom? It is not obvious. The usual rule of a democracy is votes for all. But it can be questioned whether a universal franchise is the most just one in a case of this sort. Whatever benefits there are in the admission of immigrants presumably accrue to everyone. But the costs would be seen as falling most heavily on potential parents, some of whom would have to postpone or forego having their (next) child because of the influx of immigrants. The double question Who benefits? Who pays?suggests that a restriction of the usual democratic franchise would be appropriate and just in this case. Would our particular quasi-democratic form of government be flexible enough to institute such a novelty? If not, the majority might, out of humanitarian motives, impose an unacceptable burden (the foregoing of parenthood) on a minority, thus producing political instability. Plainly many new problems will arise when we consciously face the immigration question and seek rational answers. No workable answers can be found if we ignore population problems. And—if the argument of this essay is correct—so long as there is no true world government to control reproduction everywhere it is impossible to survive in Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

Chapter 20 ❮❮ Global Justice and Globalization 591 Paddock, W., and E. Paddock. 1973. We Don’t Know How. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. Paddock, W., and P. Paddock. 1967. Famine-1975! Little, Brown, Boston. Wilkes, H. G. 1972. The green revolution. Environment 14(8): 32–39. Lansner, K. 1974. Should foreign aid begin at home? Newsweek, 11 Feb., p. 32. Marx, K. 1875. Critique of the Gotha program. Page 388 in R. C. Tucker, ed. The Marx-Engels Reader.Norton, N.Y., 1972. Ophuls, W. 1974. The scarcity society. Harpers 248(1487): 47–52. Paddock, W. C. 1970. How green is the green revolution? BioScience 20: 897–902. 1. What are some of the current contrasting conditions between rich and poor nations described in the text? 2. Explain how the history of colonialism might be connected to current inequalities. Explain a criticism of this idea. 3. What self-interested reasons can be given for doing something to remedy the situation of poor countries? 4. What is justice, and what role does it play in determining what ought to be done about global poverty? 5. Why is cultural relativism a concern when thinking about global justice? 6. Why might we think that we have obligations to be concerned with the suffering of those in distant lands? Explain one criticism of this idea. 7. Contrast Singer’s and Hardin’s views on how we ought to deal with famine. 8. Summarize different meanings of globalization given in the text. 9. Describe some positive and some negative aspects of globalization. REVIEW E X E R CISES Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

Sam points out all of globalization’s crass and commercialized aspects—the same McDonald’s, consumer electronics, and pop culture icons all over the world—and the negative impact that Western culture has on local and indigenous cultures. Jane argues that Western personal and political freedoms ought to be made universal and that a more homogenous culture is a small price to pay for democracy and the liberation of women and minority groups. With whom do you agree, Sam or Jane? Can economic and political modernization be divorced from cultural globalization? 4. Colonialism and Globalization. Robert is excited about the recent focus on global justice within institutions such as the United Nations and the World Bank. His family emigrated from Africa to the United States to escape the poverty and political instability of his home country. He thinks these new initiatives will be helpful to those they left behind. But his brother, Daniel, is not convinced. Daniel complains, “Nobody helps without asking for something. Most of those international organizations serve the interests of the countries who caused our unhappiness to begin with. The rich countries are always taking advantage of the poor. They enslaved and marginalized lots of us and exploited our countries’ resources. Then they left us with a mess.” Robert disagrees. “I don’t know why you blame others for the poverty back home. Anyway, I’m glad that the rich countries are finally helping. Our people need any help they can get.” Daniel responds, “They owe us for what they did to us. But I still don’t trust them.” What do you think? Do rich countries owe something to poor countries? Do rich countries offer their help without strings attached? Or is Daniel right to be cynical? 1. Ethical Consumption. Chris is an advocate of ethical consumption. He tries to buy only fair-trade products, and he is willing to pay more for an item when he is certain that the item is produced without exploitation. This means that he often pays 10 to 25 percent more for certain products. His father thinks this is a bad idea. He tells Chris, “You could buy cheaper stuff and with the money you save, you could save for your own future and retirement. Heck, you could even give that money to the poor.” Chris is not concerned with his retirement fund. But he is concerned about alleviating poverty. He’s puzzled by his father’s response. Should Chris try to find the cheapest products and save money, which he would then donate to charity? Or should he continue to seek out fair trade items, which would leave him with less to donate to charity? What is the solution to this problem? Explain your thinking. 2. Which Poverty Matters? Madison is a successful businessperson who has become convinced that she ought to give a substantial amount of her earnings to help those in extreme poverty in the developing world. Her brother, Thomas, a local college student, is not persuaded that such donations are a good idea. “It just makes people ask for more handouts later,” he says. “And besides,” he adds, “there are a lot of poor people here in our city: homeless people living on the streets. And I’m not doing too well myself. You ought to give me some of your charity so I can pay for college. I’m going to be swamped with student loan debt.” How should Madison reply? Does she have an obligation to help her brother pay for school, to help the homeless in her city, or to help those in poverty in other countries? Should her proximity or relationship to these various people make a difference here? Or is Thomas right that handouts don’t help? 3. Global Culture. Sam and Jane have been arguing about the effects of globalization as a form of modernization or Westernization of the world. DISCUSSIO N C ASES For more chapter resources and activities, go to MindTap. 592 PART TWO ❯❯ ETHICAL ISSUES Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

593 ❮❮ Glossary A Absolutism metaethical idea that there are eternal and unchanging values and rules (versus relativism). Act utilitarianism utilitarian theory that focuses on judging whether individual acts create the greatest happiness for the greatest number (compare: rule utilitarianism). Active euthanasia actively killing someone for the benefit of the one being killed (versus passive euthanasia). Actuality ontological consideration focused on what a thing is at the present moment (versus what it has the potential to become); often employed in discussions of the ethics of abortion; see also ontological status and potentiality. Ad hominem a phrase meaning “to the person”; ad hominem arguments are (usually) fallacious arguments that attack a person rather than the person’s idea or logical reasoning. Advance directive a health care directive that stipulates in advance what sort of care a patient wants or does not want in case of incapacity; see also living will and durable power of attorney. Aesthetics the study of beauty and taste. Affirmative action social programs that take positive steps to remedy past injustice and inequality (usually racial); for example: preferential treatment; criticized as reverse discrimination. Ahimsa term meaning nonviolence; associated with South Asian traditions such as Hinduism and Buddhism. Akrasia see weakness of will. Altruism behavior that is oriented toward the well-being of others (versus egoism); see also pro-social behavior. Animal rights idea that individual animals have an interest in their lives and a corresponding right not to suffer or be killed (associated with Regan); see also animal welfare. Animal welfare idea that animal suffering matters and that we should not cause unnecessary harm to animals (associated with utilitarianism and Singer); see also animal rights. Anthropocentrism approach to environmental ethics (and animal welfare) that maintains that human interests alone are the proper focal point (versus biocentrism and ecocentrism). Arguments from analogy arguments based upon a comparison between items; relevant similarities among things are intended to incline us to accept conclusions about these things that are also relevantly similar. Autonomy self-determination, self-control, independence, and freedom of action. B Begging the question a fallacious argument in which the conclusion is assumed in the premises (also called a circular argument). Biocentrism approach to environmental ethics that is Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

594 GLOSSARY focused on the value of biotic systems and all life (versus anthropocentrism); see also ecocentrism. Bioconservativism idea that we should not be “playing God” with regard to biotechnologies, sometimes based upon repugnance toward new technologies (associated with Kass). Bioengineering projects aiming to develop mechanical supplements for biological systems, which can be used for therapy or enhancement. Biotechnology interventions and manipulations of biological systems and organisms through the use of technological means including genetic engineering, cloning, the use of drugs, surgeries, and so on. Biotic pyramid the interrelated food chains that unite plants, grazing animals, prey animals, predators, and human beings (associated with Leopold’s land ethic). C Capitalism a social and economic system based on private property and freedom to make profit; see also laissez-faire capitalism (versus socialism and communism). Cardinal virtues primary virtues; the four cardinal virtues in the ancient Greek tradition are justice, wisdom, moderation, and courage. Care ethics ethical theory that emphasizes nurturing relationships, while downplaying autonomy and individualism (associated with Noddings). Categorical imperative Kantian idea about the universal form of the moral law, which is not based on hypothetical or conditional interests; Kant’s formulation: “act only according to that maxim, whereby you can will that it should also be a universal law” (versus hypothetical imperative). Circular argument a fallacious argument that assumes what it seeks to prove (also called begging the question). Cisgender someone who identifies with the sexual/gender identity they were assigned at birth or with traditional gender roles (as opposed to transgender). Civil disobedience breaking a law in a civil manner that retains fidelity to the system of justice and accepts punishment as an act of protest. Civil union a legally recognized relationship between samesex partners, similar but not identical to marriage (also called civil partnership or domestic partnership). Collateral damage term used in just war ethics to describe unintended noncombatant harm that is justified by application of the principle of double effect; see also noncombatant immunity. Communism a social and economic system focused on communal ownership of the means of production, radical equality, and the abolition of social classes; see also socialism (versus capitalism). Communitarianism a theory of society that emphasizes communal belonging and is critical of the individualistic focus of liberalism and libertarianism. Consequentialism normative theories that focus on the consequences of actions; examples include egoism, altruism, utilitarianism (versus non-consequentialism). Contractarianism normative theory that holds that moral norms arise from a contract or agreement between rational parties (associated with Hobbes and Rawls); see also reciprocal altruism. Cosmopolitanism idea that there are (or ought to be) universal norms that unite people across the globe. Criminal justice justice that is focused on punishment and correction (versus social justice); see also retributive justice, deterrence, restorative justice. D Decarceration the idea of eliminating prisons or radically reducing the role of incarceration in punishment. Deep ecology extreme ecocentric idea in environmental ethics that emphasizes human belonging to nature and the intrinsic value of natural things (associated with Devall and Sessions). Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

GLOSSARY 595 Deontological ethics normative theory that morality ought to be focused on duties and adherence to rules and imperatives (associated with Kant). Descriptive claims propositions that state true or false claims about facts in the world. Descriptive egoism (defined under egoism). Descriptive relativism descriptive claim that values differ depending upon culture and perspective. Deterrence a focal point for consequentialist approaches to criminal justice, which is concerned with deterring criminals from committing crime (versus retributive justice and restorative justice). Discrimination (in just war) principle of the just war theory that stipulates that just warriors should target only combatants and protect noncombatants; see also noncombatant immunity. Discrimination (as injustice) to treat someone unfairly and unequally based upon racial, ethnic, gender, or other identity claims (not to be confused with discrimination in just war theory). Distributive justice a theory of justice concerned with the fair distribution of benefits and harms within society (versus retributive justice and procedural justice). Divine command theory idea that ethical norms are ultimately based upon the authoritative decrees of God. Double effect the principle or doctrine of double effect is the idea in deontological ethics that holds that if the intention behind an action is morally appropriate, unintended (but foreseen and accidental) negative effects may be permissible. Durable power of attorney used to appoint or empower someone to make health care decisions for you in the case of incapacity; see also advance directive and living will. E Ecocentrism approach to environmental ethics that is focused on the value of the ecosystem as a whole and not merely on its relation to human beings (versus anthropocentrism); see also biocentrism. Ecofeminism a critical version of environmental ethics that emphasizes the way that patriarchal systems have abused nature and a more productive feminine connection with nature. Ecosystem a concept used in environmental ethics that refers to the broad integrated, coordinated, and organized whole, including plants, animals, and human beings. Egoism normative or ethical egoism claims that we ought to pursue our own self-interest; descriptive egoism (also called psychological egoism) maintains that as a matter of fact we can pursue only our own self-interest (versus altruism). Embryonic stem cells cells removed from a developing embryo, which can develop into multiple tissues; controversial because the embryo is destroyed to harvest them. Emotivism metaethical idea that ethical propositions express emotional states (associated with Stevenson). Enhancement an intervention that goes beyond natural/ normal function and creates superior performance, employed in discussions of biotechnology (versus therapy). Enlightenment period of fertile development of Western culture and philosophy, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Environmental ethics field of ethical inquiry that is concerned with the question of the value of ecosystems, the natural environment, and the distribution of benefits and harms in relation to the environment. Environmental justice a concern in environmental ethics that is focused on the fair distribution of harms and benefits to human beings in relation to environment impacts such as pollution (related to distributive justice and social justice). Epicureanism theory of Epicurus, which holds that pleasure and happiness are primary (also called hedonism). Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

596 GLOSSARY Epistemology theory of knowledge. Ethical egoism see egoism. Eudaimonia Greek term for human flourishing and happiness that is more than simply pleasure; associated with Aristotle and virtue ethics. Eugenics goal of producing genetically superior offspring, either through genetic screening or through more forceful interventions including forced sterilization. Eurocentrism attitude or practice of interpreting the world from a perspective that focuses primarily on European interests, values, and history. Euthanasia literally good death; also called mercy killing; forms include active, passive, voluntary, involuntary, and nonvoluntary. Exoneration to be found innocent of a crime for which one was previously convicted and found guilty. Extraordinary measures in discussion of end of life care and euthanasia, extraordinary measures are medical interventions that are not proven to be reasonably beneficial—may include, for example, experimental treatments or risky interventions (versus ordinary measures). F Fair chase idea in hunting ethics that the animal should stand some chance and the hunter requires some skill and good luck. Female genital mutilation removal of parts of the female genitals (includes a variety of procedures); also called female circumcision. Feminism intellectual commitment and a political movement that seeks justice for women and the end of sexism in all forms. Feminist ethics a critical theory of ethics that rejects maledominant ideas, can include “feminine” ethics emphasizing community and caregiving (associated with Noddings). Fundamentalism idea that truth is grounded in religious texts, traditions, and prophets. G Gay marriage marriage of homosexual couples, also called same-sex marriage; see also civil union. Genetic screening process of choosing embryos based on their genetic assets prior to implantation; can include efforts to modify genes to eliminate disease or produce enhanced capacities. Genetically modified organisms plants or animals that have been genetically altered by scientists in an effort to improve the stock and increase yield. Global justice concern for distributive justice, environmental justice, and social justice across the globe. Globalization process of increasing integration of global markets and ideas, by way of growing international cooperation and international business. Golden Mean idea associated with virtue ethics that virtue is found in the middle between excess and deficiency. Golden Rule idea that one ought to love one’s neighbor as oneself or do unto others as we would have them do unto us. Greatest happiness principle utilitarian idea that we ought to work to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people; see also principle of utility. H Hate crime a crime that is accompanied by bias (racial, religious, gender, sexuality) against the individual who is the victim of the crime. Hedonism theory that holds that pleasure is the highest good; as a normative theory tells us we ought to pursue pleasure; see also Epicureanism. Hippocratic Oath medical ethics pledge rooted in ancient Greek tradition; primary tenet is to do no harm. Human rights rights that are basic to human beings, often described in universal terms that transcend national and cultural differences; see also rights, natural rights. Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

GLOSSARY 597 Humanism orientation to human concerns and interests (as opposed to theistic or religious orientation); see also secular ethics. Hume’s law the claim (derived from David Hume’s thinking) that it is illegitimate to derive an “ought” from an “is”; see also naturalistic fallacy. Hypothetical imperative Kantian idea of a conditional rule that governs prudential behaviors and skilled activities aimed at procuring or producing some conditional good (versus categorical imperative). I Implicit bias unconscious prejudices and attitudes, based upon stereotypical ideas, which affect our judgments and behaviors without conscious awareness. Imperfect/meritorious duties Kantian idea about duties of virtue that are admirable and praiseworthy but not always necessary (versus perfect/ necessary duties). In vitro fertilization a process by which egg and sperm are united outside of the uterus, the consequent embryo is implanted into the uterus—a way to create pregnancy for infertile couples. Individual relativism idea that ethical claims are relative to an individual’s values and perspectives; see also subjectivism. Inherent worth/value value residing by nature in something and without reference to any other value or good; see also intrinsic value. Institutional racism see structural racism. Instrumental value/goods things that are useful or good as tools or as means toward some other good (versus intrinsic goods). Intrinsic value/goods things that have value in themselves and not merely as tools or means (versus instrumental goods); see also inherent worth. Intrinsically evil means concept in just war theory that rules out some weapons and methods of war as being evil in themselves (or mala in se). Intuitionism metaethical idea that ethical truths are objective and irreducible and can be known by faculty of intuition (associated with Moore). Involuntary euthanasia euthanasia that is done against an individual’s will (versus voluntary euthanasia and nonvoluntary euthanasia). J Jus ad bellum just war concern for ethical issues arising in deciding to go to war, including just cause, legitimate authority, and proportionality. Jus in bello just war concern for ethical issues arising within warfare, including proportionality, discrimination, and prohibition on intrinsically evil means. Just cause concern of jus ad bellum, which holds that a war is justified only if there is a just cause, including defending the innocent or repelling aggression. Just war theory a theory about the justification of war that maintains that war should be limited by moral concerns; see also jus ad bellum and jus in bello. K Kingdom of ends Kantian ideal of rational, moral society in which persons are respected as ends in themselves. L Laissez-faire capitalism form of economic and social organization that emphasizes leaving the market alone to regulate itself. Land ethic an ecocentric idea in environmental ethics that views the land as a whole and claims that good actions contribute to the well-being of the whole (associated with Leopold). Law of peoples idea of international law that transcends national borders. Legitimate authority concern of jus ad bellum that holds that a war is justified only if the entity declaring war holds power legitimately. Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

. Liberalism a political theory that emphasizes a combination of concern for liberty and concern for social justice and distributive justice (associated with Rawls) (versus libertarianism and socialism). Libertarianism a political theory about both the importance of liberty in human life and the limited role of government (associated with Rand) (versus liberalism and socialism). Liberty rights see negative rights. Living wage a minimum wage standard indexed to the cost of living (versus minimum wage). Living will a form of advance health care directive; see also advance directive and durable power of attorney. M Metaethical relativism metaethical claim that there are no objective or nonrelative values that could mediate disputes about ethics. Metaethics study of moral concepts and the logic of ethical language. Minimum wage legally mandated minimum hourly wage for labor (versus living wage). Modernization theory of development that emphasizes increased secularization, spread of capitalism, and liberalization of economics and politics. Moral agent a being who is able to express ethical concern and take responsibility for behaviors, attitudes, and actions (versus moral patient) Moral patient an object of ethical concern, a recipient of moral concern, or a being that is viewed as having value (versus moral agent). Moral pluralism see value pluralism. Moral realism idea that there are ethical facts and that moral judgments can be said to be true or false; see also objectivism. N Natural law a theory of law that is grounded in claims about nature; natural law ethics is a normative theory that holds that reason can discover objective ethical norms by examining natural human functions (associated with Aquinas). Natural rights rights or entitlements that we have by nature, which are not created by positive laws and which create a limit to legal intervention; see also rights, human rights. Naturalistic fallacy argument that inappropriately derives normative claims from descriptive claims (associated with Moore); see also Hume’s law. Negative rights rights of noninterference and prevention of harm, often called liberty rights (as opposed to welfare rights and positive rights). Nepotism showing favoritism toward one’s relatives. Noncombatant immunity idea in just war theory that noncombatants should not be deliberately targeted; see also collateral damage. Non-consequentialism normative theories that do not focus on consequences of actions but instead on intentions, rules, or principles; examples include deontology, divine command, and natural law (versus consequentialism). Nonvoluntary euthanasia euthanasia that is done when the patient is incapacitated and unable to express her wishes or give consent (versus voluntary euthanasia and involuntary euthanasia). Normative ethics study of prescriptive accounts of how we ought to behave. Normative judgments evaluative or prescriptive claims about what is good, evil, just, and the like. Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

GLOSSARY 599 O Objectivism metaethical idea that ethical propositions refer to objective facts (versus subjectivism); see also moral realism. Ontological status related to a theory of being (ontology); questions about the moral status of things (fetuses, ecosystems, etc.) depend upon deciding what sorts of beings these things are; see also actuality and potentiality. Ontology theory of being or beings; an account of what exists or about the sort of being a thing is. Ordinary measures in discussions of end of life care and euthanasia, ordinary measures are those medical interventions that are proven to be reasonably beneficial in most cases (vs. extraordinary measures). Original position idea used in John Rawls’s theory of justice that asks us to imagine ourselves as original or founding parties to the social contract; see also veil of ignorance. Original sin Christian idea that human beings inherit a tendency to do evil from the original sin of Adam and Eve. P Pacifism commitment to nonviolence and opposition to war (associated with Gandhi and King). Palliative care health care that is aimed at pain management and dealing with suffering. Palliative sedation sedation employed to provide pain management at the end of life (related to terminal sedation). Paradox of hedonism problem for hedonism: when pursuing pleasure directly, we fail to obtain it; but pleasure occurs when we do not directly pursue it. Paradox of toleration problem of whether one should tolerate those who are intolerant or who reject the idea of toleration. Passive euthanasia allowing someone to die (“letting die”) for the benefit of the one who is dying (versus active euthanasia). Perfect/necessary duties Kantian idea about duties of justice that we always ought to do or that we always ought to avoid (versus imperfect/meritorious duties). Persistent vegetative state a condition of permanent brain damage, characterized by lack of awareness and loss of higher brain functions; patient remains alive but has lost cognitive function; see also whole brain death. Perspectivism relativist idea that there are only perspectives and interpretations, which cannot be reduced to a fundamental fact of the world. Physician-assisted suicide closely related to euthanasia; doctors prescribe lethal medication but patients take the medication, killing themselves. Positive rights rights of entitlement to basic subsistence and other means of living sometimes called welfare rights (as opposed to liberty rights and negative rights). Post-structuralism a philosophical movement of the late twentieth century that emphasizes the social construction of categories of thought. Potentiality ontological consideration focused on what a thing has the potential to become; often employed in discussions of the ethics of abortion; see also ontological status and actuality. Precautionary principle an idea used in environmental ethics and in thinking about biotechnology that emphasizes avoiding risk when considering innovations. Preferential treatment a form of affirmative action that intends to give preference to members of groups who were previously unjustly discriminated against; see affirmative action. Premises the reasons given in an argument that provide support for the argument’s conclusion. Prima facie term meaning “on the face of it” or “at first glance.” Prima facie duties pluralist idea that there are several duties, each of which is valuable but which can end up in conflict (associated with Ross). Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

600 GLOSSARY Principle of equality idea that we should treat equal things in equal ways and that we ought to treat different things in unequal ways. Principle of utility utilitarian idea that what matters is the pleasure produced by an action, especially the pleasure produced for the greatest number of people; see also greatest happiness principle. Prisoner’s dilemma problem for rational self-interest and social contract: self-interested parties who do not trust one another will be unable to cooperate and thus will end up with less than optimal outcomes. Problem of evil argument against the existence of God that claims that a good God would not permit evil but since evil exists, God must not exist (versus theodicy). Procedural justice a theory of justice focused on the fairness of the procedures used to distribute benefits and harms (versus distributive justice). Proportionality concern of just war theory that maintains that war should be a proportional last resort and that limited and proportional means should be employed during the course of war. Pro-social behavior behaviors that intend to help others (versus antisocial behavior). Psychological egoism (defined under egoism). Q Queer theory a post-structuralist approach to thinking about gender and sexuality that maintains that sex and gender roles are socially constructed (associated with Butler). Quickening the point in pregnancy at which the mother is able to detect movement of the fetus; sometimes viewed as the time when the fetus attains moral status. R Racial profiling law enforcement technique that targets individuals based upon suspicion resulting from the individual’s racial or ethnic identity. Racialism idea that there are firm biological distinctions between human beings based on racial categories (critiqued by Appiah). Racism unjust use of racial or ethnic categories to classify individuals and distribute social benefits and harms. Realism view on ethics of war that maintains that limits on warfare are merely pragmatic or prudential and that the goal is strength and victory. Reciprocal altruism idea that altruistic behavior is traded with others in a mutually beneficial exchange; see also contractarianism. Regenerative medicine an approach to medical therapy that aims to regrow damaged tissues and organs using stem cells—both embryonic stem cells and other forms of stem cells. Relativism a variety of claims that deny the objectivity of values including: descriptive relativism, individual relativism (or subjectivism), metaethical relativism, and social or cultural relativism. Relativism, social or cultural idea that ethical claims are relative to a social or cultural matrix. Religious pluralism idea that diverse religions provide multiple paths toward a common truth (associated with Gandhi). Reproductive cloning a cloning procedure that aims to develop an individual organism as a substitute for ordinary reproduction (versus therapeutic cloning). Restorative justice an approach to criminal justice that seeks to make criminals take responsibility and make amends, while restoring the community that they have broken (versus retributive justice and deterrence). Retributive justice a theory of criminal justice that focuses on giving criminals what they deserve and forcing them to pay back what they owe to victims or to society (versus restorative justice and deterrence); see also lex talionis. Reverse discrimination an idea used to criticize affirmative action Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

GLOSSARY 601 that claims that actions aiming to help those who were previously discriminated against result in discrimination against those who were the beneficiaries of past discrimination. Rights basic entitlements that ordinarily cannot be taken away or overridden; can be positive entitlements (positive rights) or negative protections (negative rights) (associated with Locke); see also natural rights and human rights. Rule utilitarianism utilitarian theory that focuses on postulating general rules that will tend to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number (versus act utilitarianism). S Secular ethics approach to ethics that locates ethical norms in nonreligious principles acceptable to people from a variety of religions (versus divine command theory); see also humanism. Secularization movement away from religious culture and toward a nonreligious public sphere; see also modernization. Sentience the ability to feel, perceive, and be conscious of the world, used in discussions of animal welfare and abortion in considering the moral status of animals and fetuses. Sex trafficking trading sex for money; also called prostitution. Sexting sending and receiving sexually explicit messages via cell phones. Sex-selective abortion abortion performed for the purpose of selecting the gender of the baby. Skepticism questioning and doubting attitude. Social contract theory idea that social norms and political agreement are derived from a mutually beneficial contract to which the parties would consent (associated with Hobbes, Locke, and Rawls). Social Darwinism idea of applying Darwinian evolution to society as a way of improving the genetic stock of humanity (widely repudiated as immoral). Social justice an approach to justice that is concerned with the fair distribution of goods in society, often associated with natural law theories (versus criminal justice). Socialism a social and economic system focused on developing shared social assets and a social safety net; see also communism (versus capitalism). Sociobiology a field of study that applies evolutionary and comparative biology to understanding social phenomena, including ethical behaviors. Sound argument a valid argument with true premises. Speciesism a pejorative term used to describe anthropocentrists, who maintain that human beings are superior to nonhuman animals (associated with Singer). Stem cell research a promising line of research that could help to regenerate damaged tissues; controversial when it employs human embryonic stem cells. Stoicism theory of ancient Stoic philosophers, which holds that obedience to natural law and duty is essential (despite pain). Straw man argument fallacious argument that describes an opponent’s position in such a way as to easily dismiss it. Structural racism idea that social structures are constituted in ways that create disparate racial outcomes (also called institutional racism). Subjectivism metaethical idea that ethical propositions refer to subjective dispositions or values (versus objectivism); see also individual relativism, descriptive relativism, metaethical relativism. Supererogatory a term used to describe actions that go above and beyond the call of duty. T Teleological adjective used to describe ideas and theories that are focused on goals, purposes, or outcomes (related to consequentialism). Terminal sedation use of sedatives in palliative care that Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

602 GLOSSARY aims to reduce suffering at the end of life but may also contribute to death and be considered as part of euthanasia. Theodicy theoretical explanation of why a good God would permit evil; response to the problem of evil. Therapeutic cloning a cloning procedure that is used to grow stem cells or tissues that could be used for organ donation or regenerative medicine (versus reproductive cloning). Therapy an intervention employed to return something to natural/normal function, employed in discussions of biotechnology (versus enhancement). Toleration attitude of forbearance or permissiveness for attitudes or behaviors that are disapproved; an open and nonjudgmental attitude. Totipotent term describing the ability of embryonic stem cells to develop into any kind of tissue; see also stem cell research. Tragedy of the commons worry about degradation of common resources when no one owns them, associated with concerns for environmental degradation (associated with Hardin). Transgender persons who do not feel comfortable with or who do not identify with the traditional sex/gender roles assigned to them (see cisgender). Transhumanism a movement aiming to improve human abilities, extend human life span, and increase cognitive capacity; sometimes referred to as posthumanism (associated with Bostrom). U Utilitarianism normative theory that we ought to concern ourselves with the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people (associated with Bentham and Mill). V Valid argument an argument in which the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises. Value pluralism the metaethical idea that there is more than one objective value (associated with Ross); see also prima facie duties. Vegetarianism commitment to avoiding eating meat including veganism, which avoids consuming any animal product including eggs, milk, and leather. Veil of ignorance idea used in John Rawls’s version of the social contract that asks us to ignore concrete facts about our own situation as we imagine the ideal social contract. Viability the point at which a fetus might live outside of the womb if delivered early; sometimes used as a criteria for determining the permissibility (or not) of abortion. Virtue ethics normative theory that maintains that the focus of morality is habits, dispositions, and character traits (associated with Aristotle). Voluntary euthanasia euthanasia that is done with the consent of the one being killed or dying (versus involuntary euthanasia and nonvoluntary euthanasia). W Weakness of will problem in moral psychology: we sometimes will things that we know are not in our own self-interest or are unable to do things we know are good (also called akrasia). Welfare rights see positive rights. Whole brain death legal criteria for death focused not on respiration and heartbeat but on the presence of brain activity; see also persistent vegetative state. Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

603 ❮❮ Index Abortion, 166, 172–173, 210, 249n, 268, 376. See also Prochoice abortion advocacy brain development and, 243 conception and, 243 consent and, 238 fetus status arguments, 242–249 Hursthouse on, 248, 265 law, 237–240 MacKinnon on, 248 Marquis on, 246, 249, 252–260 methods, 235–237 opponents, 232–233 population control and, 236 potentiality and, 246–247 quickening and, 234, 237, 244 rights-based arguments, 241–242 sex-selective, 236–237 Thomson on, 241–242, 248–249, 251–252, 264–265, 270–271 Tooley on, 246–247 trimester formula, 238 utilitarianism and, 240–241 value and, 247–248, 270–272 viability and, 244–245 Warren, M., on, 247, 249, 272n Abortion Counseling (Needle and Walker), 268 The Abortion Myth (Cannold), 265–266 Absolute morals, 46, 52, 64 Absolute values, 46, 52, 64 Absolutism, 51, 56, 123 Ackerman, Peter, 549, 550 Active euthanasia, 199, 206–207 passive versus, 216–218, 224–228 ADA. See Americans with Disabilities Act Adarand v. Pena, 321 Advance directives, 200, 214, 220n durable power of attorney, 208–209 living will, 208–209 ordinary and extraordinary measures, 212–213 palliative sedation, 211–212 physician-assisted suicide, 199, 206, 209–211, 216t Affective response, 18–19 Affirmative action compensatory justice, 328–329 consequentialism and, 326–328 defining, 325 equality principle and, 327–328 forms of, 321, 325–326 goals, 326 justice and, 316, 328–329, 337 nonconsequentialism and, 328–329 preferential treatment and, 319, 325–329 quotas, 326 Affordable Care Act, 349–350 Age discrimination, 315 “Ageless Bodies, Happy Souls” (Kass), 515–524 Ahimsa, 24, 533, 551 Air pollution, 418 Akrasia, 72 Alexander, Michelle, 400–401 Alex-Assensoh, Yvette M., 336 All Men are Brothers (Gandhi), 39–42 Almaleki, Noor, 173 Altruism defined, 6, 68 egoism conflicting with, 69 Pinker on, 89–92 Rand on, 70–71, 71f, 370 reciprocal, 71, 73, 89 social contract and, 68, 71, 89–93 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

604 INDEX American Medical Association (AMA) on euthanasia, 225, 227, 228 on physician-assisted suicide, 210 American Nurses Association, 212 American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), 464 American Sociological Association, 292 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 315, 321 Amnesty International, 386–387, 388, 422 Analogy, arguments from, 11–12 Analytical ethics, 16 Anarchy, State, and Utopia (Nozick), 364 Anderson, Warren, 422 Animal experimentation, 465 opposition to, 463–464 Singer on, 482–485 Animal Legal Defense Fund, 464 Animal Liberation (Singer), 471, 477–485 Animals anthropocentrism and, 420, 423, 450, 460, 469 Bentham on, 480, 481 cloning, 494, 495–496, 503 current issues, 460–468 Descartes on, 469–470 endangered, 457–458, 466–468 equal consideration of, 469– 472, 474, 478–485 ethics approaches, 468–474, 472t hunting, 458–459 Kant on, 289, 469 Nussbaum on, 470 pain and, 458–459, 461, 465, 471, 474 Regan on, 474, 486 rights, 472–474, 486 sentience of, 469–472 Singer on, 461, 471, 474, 477–485 species, 471–472, 481, 487 Steinbock on, 474 value of, 467–468, 469, 486 welfare, 461, 463–464, 469–472 Animal Welfare Act (AWA), 463–464 Anthropocentrism, 6 animals and, 420, 423, 450, 460, 469 environment and, 420–422, 436 Anti-foundationalism, 52 Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act, 414n Appiah, Kwame Anthony on cognitive incapacity, 334 on race feeling, 312, 315, 334 on racialism, 312, 329, 334 on racism, 329, 334 Applicative Justice: A Pragmatic Theory for Correcting Injustice (Zack), 335 A priori principle, 129, 132 Aquinas, Thomas, 142f, 148n, 189, 237, 565 just war theory, 534 on natural law, 141–145, 149–152 on reason, 142 on sexuality, 301–302, 305n, 307 on universe, 142, 145 on virtue, 150 Arab Spring, 549 “Are Prisons Obsolete” (Davis), 401–402 Arguments from analogy, 11–12 circular and sound, 10 ethical reasoning and, 9–11 on euthanasia, 222–224 moral, on global poverty, 563–568 punishment, 377, 378–379, 379–381 Aristotle, 22, 98, 142, 143, 163, 463 on deficiency and excess, 158 on friendship, 286 on function of man, 164–165 on good, 158–159, 164 on happiness, 159, 164 on homosexuality, 298, 299, 300 on human nature, 148, 157, 158–160 on universe, 145 on virtues, 157–160, 162, 164–169 on women, 161 Armstrong, Lance, 492 ASPCA. See American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Assensoh, Kwandwo, 342n Atheism, 25, 32 Athletic enhancement, 492–493, 501–502 Atkins v. Virginia, 389 Augustine (Saint), 29, 45, 145, 237 just war theory and, 534 Aurelius, Marcus, 116, 551 Authority death penalty, 409–410 just war theory and legitimate, 535 obedience to, 2 Autonomy defined, 215 euthanasia and, 200, 202, 215–216, 218 Kant on, 215 sexuality and, 280 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX 605 AWA. See Animal Welfare Act Al-Awlaki, Anwar, 542 Ayer, A. J., 8 Ayres, Ian, 340 Baier, Annette, 185–192 Baier, Kurt, 71 Bakke v. U.C. Davis Medical School, 321 Ban Ki-moon, 435 Bartels, Daniel, 103 Baxter, William F., 442 de Beauvoir, Simone, 179, 193 Begging the question, 1, 10 Benedict, Ruth, 45, 56, 58–59 Bentham, Jeremy on animals, 480, 481 on death penalty, 392 on deontology, 115 on natural rights, 146, 481 on pain, 96, 98 on pleasure, 98, 100 on sexuality, 288 on utilitarianism, 96–97, 288 Berg, Peter, 443 Bhagwati, Jagdish, 572 Bill of Rights, 320 bin Laden, Osama, 95, 528, 540, 541 Biocentric equality, 424, 447–448 Biocentrism. See Ecocentrism Bioengineering. See Biotechnology Biological weapons, 542, 544 Biomass fuel, 432–433 Biotechnology current issues, 492–500 defined, 492 Kass on, 500, 515–524 legal issues, 500–510 objections to, 517–519 precautionary principle, 500 terminology problems, 516–517 as unnatural, 520–522 Biotic pyramid, 424 Black Lives Matter movement, 309–311, 310f, 329 Black male exceptionalism, 336 Blacks, police homicides of, 309– 310, 335–341, 341n Blank State, 90 The Blank State (Pinker), 88–92 Bloom, Alan, 55 Blue Lives Matter, 310 Blum, Lawrence, 185 Bookchin, Murray, 443 Boston Marathon bombing, 376, 529 Bostrom, Nick, 525–526 Botstein, David, 498 Boulding, Kenneth, 584 Bowers v. Hardwick, 304n Boyd, Craig, 147 Brahman, 29 Brave New World (Huxley), 496 Brewer, Jan, 322 Broken Window Policy, 339 Brown, Michael, 309, 335 Brownmiller, Susan, 284 Brown v. Board of Education, 320 Buddhism, 160, 551, 553 Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S., 375–376 Burton, Kristi, 264 Bush, George W., 502, 506, 510, 528, 546 Butler, Joseph, 63 Butler, Judith, 180, 180f, 315 The Butterfly Defect (Goldin and Mariathasan), 560 Byrd, James Jr., 324 Cady, Duane L., 551 Cannold, Leslie, 265–266 Capabilities approach, 47–48, 48f, 53 Cap-and-trade system, 434 Capitalism, 346, 358 laissez-faire, 76, 357 Rand on, 369–370 self-interest and, 357 Card, Claudia, 185, 187 Cardinal virtues, 158 Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (Noddings), 175, 184–185 Carney, Cormac, 387–388 Carrasco, Ignacio de Paula, 199–200 Carson, Rachel, 445 Carter, Stephen, 327–328 Casanova, José, 33 “The Case for Animal Rights” (Regan), 486 Casey v. Planned Parenthood, 232, 238 Castile, Philando, 309 Categorical imperative, 288–289 first form, 120–121 Kant on, 119–122, 129–134 second form, 121–122 Character is Destiny (McCain), 155 Chemical weapons, 542–543 Cheney, Dick, 95, 546–547 Chimeras, 503 Chodorow, Nancy, 177 Chomsky, Noam, 572 Churchill, Ward, 549 Cicero, 141–142 Circular argument, 10 Cisgender, 280 Civic life, 24–25 Civil disobedience, 4–5, 24–25, 141 Civil law, 141 Civil rights human rights differentiated from, 320 legislation, 321–322 Paine on, 320 Civil Rights Act, 311, 321, 328 Civil Rights movement, 337 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

606 INDEX Civil unions, 293 Clean Air Council, 431–432 Climate change, 427–431, 434 Clinton, Bill, 279 Clinton, Hillary, 435 Cloning animals, 494, 495–496, 503 Gurdon on, 496 humans, 503–505 issues surrounding, 495, 496, 504–506 reproductive, 495, 496 SCNT, 495 therapeutic, 496 The Closing of the American Mind (Bloom), 55 Cognitive incapacity, 334 Cohabitation, 282–283 Colonialism, 570, 588 Communism, 357–358 Communitarianism, 363–364 Community policing, 339–340, 376 Comprehensive doctrines, 32 Comprehensive nonviolence, 550 Conception, 234, 243 Conference of Catholic Bishops, 385, 386, 392 Confucius, 160, 161f “The Conquistador and the Dark Continent: Reflections on the Nature of Love” (Gilligan), 186 Consent, 238 Consequentialism, 12, 97, 293, 386 affirmative action and, 326–328 euthanasia and, 214–215, 217 globalization and, 560–561 realism and, 532 same-sex marriage and, 291–292 sexuality and, 287–288, 291–292 Constitution of United States Bill of Rights, 320 Eighth Amendment, 410 First Amendment, 20, 21, 23, 324, 340, 341 Fourteenth Amendment, 297, 320, 322, 336 Fourth Amendment, 322, 336 Nineteenth Amendment, 320 Consumerism fair trade practices, 561 Galbraith on, 454 Contemporary virtues, 160–161 Contested Lives (Ginsburg), 264 Conventionalism, 58–60 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, UN, 466 Corrective virtues, 161 Corvino, John, 293, 306–307 Cosmopolitanism, 22–24 Casanova on, 33 global justice and, 562 Courage, 161, 162, 165–166, 168 Crime rate, 375–376 Crimes against humanity, 545 Crimes against peace, 545 Criminalization of Female Genital Mutilation Act, U.S., 283 Critical ethics, 16 Critical race theory, 311–313 Cruelty to Animals Act, 463 Cruzan, Nancy, 206–207 Cultural relativism, 26–27, 45, 56, 60–62 individual relativism versus, 46–47 Culture, 60–62 Dalai Lama, 27f, 28, 551 Darwin, Charles, 92, 468 Date rape, 284 Davis, Angela on prisons, 385, 395, 401–402 on punishment, 402 Dawkins, Richard, 6, 9 D&C. See Dilation and curettage Deahl, Joshua, 340 Dear, Robert L., 233 Death penalty authority, 409–410 Bentham on, 392 Carney on, 387–388 Conference of Catholic Bishops on, 386, 392 costs, 389–390 deterrence and, 390–391 exonerations, 388, 406–407 fairness and, 388–389 history of, 387 humane, 394–395 just cause and, 408, 410 Kant on, 391, 414n as last resort, 408, 411, 413 legal issues, 386–388 mental disabilities and, 376 mercy and, 392–394 methods, 394–395 Mill, John, on, 390, 395, 402–406 model approaches to, 393t moral presumption against, 409–411 motivation for, 408, 410 natural law and, 407–408 race and, 388–389 Reiman on, 392 restorative justice and, 392–394 retribution and, 391–392 Steffen on, 386, 395, 406–413 Death Penalty Information Center, 388, 389 Decarceration, 383 Declaration of Independence, 23, 359 natural rights and, 138, 145–146 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX 607 Deep ecology, 426 biocentric equality, 447–448 Devall on, 437, 443–449 ecological consciousness cultivated through, 444–445 Fox, W., on, 446 Guha on, 449–455 Naess on, 425, 427, 445–446, 448 political action and, 453 principles of, 448–449 reform environmentalism, 443–444 self-realization, 446–447 Sessions on, 425, 437, 443–449 Taoism and, 445–446, 452 Deep Ecology: Living as If Nature Mattered (Devall and Sessions), 443–449 “A Defense of Abortion” (Thomson), 251–252, 264–265 Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), 279, 293 Deficiency, 158, 166, 169 De Grazia, David, 471 DeLuca, Kevin, 422 Deontology, 12, 97, 215 Bentham on, 115 pacifism and, 533 sexuality and, 288–289 variations on, 125 virtues and, 157, 162 Dependency thesis, 56, 60, 61 Descartes, René, 423, 438n, 469–470 Description, 196–197 Descriptive egoism, 68, 69 Descriptive judgments, 4, 16 Descriptive laws, 140 Descriptive relativism, normative relativism versus, 45–46 Deterrence, 377, 378–379, 390–391 Devall, Bill, 437, 443–449 Dignity, 520, 525–526 Dilation and curettage (D&C), 235 Dilation and extraction (D&X), 235, 238 Disabled, 321 death penalty and mentally, 376 discrimination and, 315 euthanasia for, 201–206 Discrimination age and, 315 current issues, 320–324 defined, 310–311 disabilities and, 315 forms of, 315–316 gender and LGBT, 315 harm and, 328–329, 338 implicit bias, 310, 313–315 just war theory and, 536–537 laws, 320–324 racial, 311–315 religion, 323, 325 reverse, 329 Distributive justice end-state, 353–354, 369, 566 equal opportunity and, 354–356 Mill, John, on, 351 Nozick on, 368–369 process, 352–353 “Distributive Justice” (Nozick), 368–369 Diversity divine command theory and, 27 globalization and, 575–578 of moral views, 49–51 Plato on, 28 relativism and, 48–50, 55–57, 60–61 of religion, 21, 27–29 women and, 180, 193 Diversity Thesis, 56, 57, 60 Divine command theory, 25, 115 diversity and, 27 Dostoevsky and, 26 Socrates on, 26, 116 Dixon, Travis, 314 DOMA. See Defense of Marriage Act Domestic Manners of the Americans (Trollope), 195 Domi, Tanya L., 319 Dominance, 423, 426–427 Donne, John, 58 Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 26 Double effect principle, 211–212, 211f, 537, 538 Down syndrome, 225 abortion and, 237 Rachels on, 203 Drones, 540–542 D’Souza, Dinesh, 570 Du Bois, W. E. B., 312, 337 Due care, 200 Dukha, 29 Durable power of attorney, 208–209 Durocher, Leo, 78 Dussel, Enrique, 33 Duty. See also Prima facie duties acting from, 115–116, 127–129 imperfect, 124–125 Kant on, 116, 118, 123, 124–125, 127–129 perfect, 124–125 Ross on, 125 transgression of, 128 Duvall, Jack, 500, 549 Dworkin, Ronald, 271 D&X. See Dilation and extraction Eagle Man, 424 Earth First!, 425 Earth Summit, 434 Ecocentrism, 422–427, 436 Eco-fascism, 425 Ecofeminism, 426–427 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

608 INDEX The Ecology of Freedom (Bookchin), 443 Economic inequality, 568–569 education and, 349 gender, 348 Greenspan on, 347 health care and, 349–350 justifications, 345–346 statistics on, 344, 348 Economic justice, 346, 350–351 Economic theory, 76 Ecosystem, 422, 423–424, 433, 446, 451 EEOC. See Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Egalitarianism, 380, 391 Egoism, 124–125. See also Ethical egoism altruism conflicting with, 69 Baier, K., on, 71 defined, 68 descriptive, 68, 69 Gewirth on, 71 Hobbes on, 75, 77 virtues and, 76–78 Eighth Amendment, of Constitution, 410 Eisenstadt v. Baird, 304n Embryo, 234 Embryonic stem cells, 494 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 424 Emotivism, 7, 9 ethical terms and, 18–19 Smith on, 8, 13 Endangered animals, 457–458, 466–468 Endangered Species Act, 443, 457, 466 End-state distributive justice, 353–354, 369, 566 Enhancement, 518 athletic, 492–493, 501–502 cognitive, 492–493, 501–502 therapy distinguished from, 492, 493, 516–517 Enlightenment, 32 freedom and, 22–24 Kant on, 23–24, 117 Environment. See also Climate change; Deep ecology anthropocentrism and, 420–422, 436 cost-benefit analysis and, 421–422 current issues, 427–437 DeLuca on, 422 Eagle Man on, 424 ecocentrism and, 422–427 Guha on, 449–455 Hardin on, 436 international conventions, 434–435 justice and, 422, 435–437 Leopold on, 424 prisoner’s dilemma and, 436 reform, 443–444 sustainable development and, 435–436 value of, 419–420, 437n Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 428, 431 Epicureanism, 98, 107–108 Epistemology, 3, 44 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), 311, 321 Equality principle, 316–319, 327–328 Equal opportunity, 351, 362 distributive justice and, 354–356 Fishkin on, 354, 355 Schaar on, 355 Equity and Inclusion, 336 Ethical consumption, 561 Ethical egoism commonsense morality and, 76 economic theory and, 76 individual, 73 moral point of view, 76–77 prisoner’s dilemma, 74–75, 74f psychological egoism and, 71–74 self-interest and, 70, 74–75 social contract and, 73–75 universal, 73, 74 Ethical reasoning, 9–11 Ethical Relativism, 60 Ethical theory, 11–13, 11f Ethics, 16, 32–34, 420t approaches to animals, 468–474, 472t Aristotle on, 157, 163–169, 286 defining, 2–3 global, 560, 585 Kant on, 3, 116, 351 Plato on, 3, 13, 78–85, 116 reasons and, 7 reasons for studying, 1–2 religion and, 25–28 teaching, 13 terms, 6–7, 18–19 Ethics of care, 550 evaluation of, 181–182 gender and, 174–179 Noddings on, 175, 184–185 relationship in, 176 Slote on, 179 stereotypes and, 176, 179 Ethnocentrism, 55–56, 58 Eudaimonia, 159 Eugenics, 496–497 Eurocentrism, 22, 33 Euthanasia active, 199, 206–207, 216–218, 224–228 AMA on, 225, 227, 228 arguments on, 222–224 autonomy and, 200, 202, 215–216, 218 consequentialism and, 214–215, 217 criteria for, 200, 203–206 defined, 201, 221–222 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX 609 for disabled, 201–206 due care, 200 extraordinary measures, 212–213 Gay-Williams on, 221–224 infant, 200, 201–206, 225 involuntary, 206, 207–208, 217 lethal prescriptions, 200 for mentally ill, 200, 215–216 moral judgments about, 214–218 nonconsequentialism and, 215–218 nonvoluntary, 206, 207–208, 213, 214f ordinary measures, 212–213 passive, 206–207, 216–218, 222, 224–228 Rachels on, 224–228 Singer on, 202 types, 206–209 voluntary, 206, 207–208, 213–216, 214f, 216t Euthyphro (Plato), 26, 34, 35–38 Evangelii Guadium (The Joy of the Gospel) (Pope Francis), 364, 371–373 Evil free will and, 29–31 Hobbes on, 86 just war theory and intrinsic, 537–538 Plato on, 13, 550 Evolutionary theory, 145 Ewert, Craig, 201 Excess, 158, 166, 169 Exonerations, 388, 406–407 Facts and Values (Stevenson), 16–17 Fair chase, 458, 459 Fairness, 121 death penalty and, 388–389 justice and, 566 Rawls on, 125, 566–567 Fair trade practices, 561 Fanon, Frantz, 570 Farm subsidies, global poverty and, 570–571 Fatwa, 21 Feinberg, Joel, 255 Felker v. Turpin, 414n Female genital mutilation (FGM), 45, 173, 283–284 Female moral perspective, 174–175 Feminine morality, 177–178 Feminism, 171, 426–427 defining, 173, 192–194 description and prescription, 196–197 evaluation of, 181–182 history of, 179–180 Lindemann on, 192–198 morality and politics, 197–198 Nussbaum on, 180 power and morality, 195–196 Feminism Unmodified (MacKinnon), 194 Feminist Theory from Margin to Center (hooks), 192 Feminization of poverty, 181, 269 Ferrell, Jonathan, 340 Fetal development stages, 233–235 Feticide, 230 Fetus, 234 moral status of, 240–249 FGM. See Female genital mutilation Fields, Gary S., 571 Finitude, 523–524 Finnis, John, 145, 293, 298–306 First Amendment, of Constitution, 20, 21, 23, 324, 340, 341 Fisher v. University of Texas at Austin, 326 Fishkin, James, 354, 355 Fitz-Gibbon, Andrew, 548–553 “Five Faces of Oppression” (Young), 329, 333 Fleming, Alexander, 465 Foot, Philippa, 161, 162, 187 Fossey, Diane, 466 Foucault, Michel, 395 Fourteenth Amendment, of Constitution, 297, 320, 322, 336 Fourth Amendment, of Constitution, 322, 336 Fox, Michael Allen, 550 Fox, Michael J., 494 Fox, Warwick, 446 Fracking, 433 Framework Convention on Climate Change, 434 Francis (pope), 27f, 350, 364, 370–373 Frankfurt, Harry, 355 Franklin, Benjamin, 77–78 Freedom, 443 Enlightenment and, 22–24 morphological, 525 of religion, 21 reproductive, 525 Free will, 29–31 Freud, Sigmund on sexuality, 286 on women, 176, 177 Fried, Charles, 508 Friedman, Milton, 357 Friendship, 286 Fullinwider, Robert, 325 Fundamentalism, 31, 32–33 Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals (Kant), 125, 126–137, 209, 351 Furman v. Georgia, 387, 410, 412 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

610 INDEX Galbraith, J. K., 454 Galtung, Johan, 550 Gamer, Eric, 309, 335 Gan, Barry L., 549–550 Gandhi, Mohandas K., 141, 392, 425–426 on animals, 460 on civil disobedience, 24 King on, 533, 549 on pacifism, 549, 550, 553 on religion, 39–42 Gardner, Ronnie Lee, 394 Garner, Eric, 309 Gauthier, David, 75 Gay marriage. See Same-sex marriages Gay-Williams, J., 221–224 Gender, 180, 183n, 187 Chodorow on, 177 defining, 194–195 differences, 173, 176–177 discrimination, 315 economic inequality, 348 equality, 173 ethics of care and, 174–179 Gilligan on, 173–176, 182 perspectives, 173, 174–175, 174f power and, 194–195 proof of difference, 316–317 reasoning and, 173–179 selective abortion, 236–237 socialization, 73 Whitbeck on, 177 Gender Trouble (Butler, Judith), 180 Gene editing, 492 Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 499–500, 509–510 Genetic engineering, 496–497, 506–509 Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, 509 Genetic screening, 496–497, 506–509 Geneva Convention, 95, 146, 539–540 Genocide, 545–546 Geo-engineering, 430–431 Gewirth, Alan, 71 Gilligan, Carol Baier, A., on, 185–192 on gender, 174–176, 182 Kohlberg and, 176, 187 Ginsburg, Faye, 264 Giuliani, Rudolf, 335, 336, 339 Glaucon, 77, 81–84 Global ethics, 560, 585 secular ethics and, 32–34 Global inequality, 562, 568–569 Globalization Bhagwati on, 572 Chomsky on, 572 consequentialism and, 560–561 critics of, 573–577 cultural diversity and, 575–578 defined, 562 economic impacts of, 574–575 global ethics and, 560, 585 protesters, 572–573 types of, 574 Wright, R., on, 574 Global justice, 435–437, 562–564, 573, 580–581, 584–590 Global poverty. See also Poverty causes of, 570–573 colonialism, 570 farm subsidies and, 570–571 global inequality, 562, 568–569 global justice and, 562, 563 Hardin on, 564–565, 584–590 institutional issues, 571–573 international aid, 569–570 justice, 565–567 Kim on, 563 moral arguments about, 563–568 Pogge on, 563–564, 573 rights, 567–568 Sachs on, 573 self-interest, 565 Singer on, 564, 573, 580–584 solutions and progress, 573 trade barriers, 570–571 Global warming, 427, 428 GMOs. See Genetically modified organisms God Locke on, 152–153 moral law and, 27 playing, 503, 504, 515 values and, 65 Goering, Hermann, 140 Goffman, Erving, 508 Golden Mean, 158, 162 Golden Rule, 28, 28f, 30, 71, 121, 288–289 Goldin, Ian, 560 Gonzales v. Carhart, 238 Good, 98–99, 105 Aristotle on, 158–159, 164 Hobbes on, 86 Moore on, 5, 53 Nietzsche on, 47 Plato on, 8 Stevenson on, 17–19 will, Kant on, 118, 126–127 Gore, Al, 385, 430 Graham, Franklin, 21 Grant, Oscar, 309 Gray, Freddie, 309 Greater Day for race, 337, 341n Greenberg, Anna, 263 Greene, Graham, 91 Greenhouse effect, 427, 428–429 Greeno, Catherine, 176 Greenspan, Alan, 347 Gregg v. Georgia, 387, 409 Griggs v. Duke Power Company, 331n Griswold v. Connecticut, 297, 304n Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX 611 Groningen Protocol, on infant euthanasia, 202 Grosmaire, Ann, 393–394 Grotius, Hugo, 143 Grutter v. Bollinger, 321 Guantanamo Bay, 139, 139f Guha, Ramachandra, 449–455 Gurdon, John, 496, 502 Gutmann, Amy, 506 Gyges, 77, 79–80 Habermas, Jürgen, 32–33 Half the Sky (Kristof and WuDunn), 172–173 Hall v. Florida, 389 Hanisch, Carol, 197 Hansen, James, 430 Happiness Aristotle on, 159, 164 calculation of, 98–100 duration and intensity of, 99 greatest, 98–99, 100, 101, 103 as intrinsic good, 98–99, 105 likelihood of, 100 Mill, John, on, 98, 100–101, 110, 111–112 utilitarianism and, 97–100 Hardin, Garrett on environment, 436 on global justice, 564 on global poverty, 564–565, 584–590 Harris, Sam, 38–39 on free will, 30 on profiling, 323 Harvey, William, 463 Haslanger, Sally, 173 Hate crimes, 324 Hayden, Michael, 546 Health care economic inequality and, 349–350 medical bankruptcy, 349 rationing, 350 Hedonism, 98 Hedonism paradox, 73 Hemingway, Ernest, 57–58 Herskovits, Melville, 58–59 Hess, Rudolf, 140 Hick, John, 28 Hijab, 172 HIll, Warren Lee, 389 Hinkley, John, Jr., 382 Hippocratic Oath, 209, 210, 235 Hitler, Adolf, 58, 59 HIV. See human immunodeficiency virus Hobbes, Thomas on egoism, 75, 77 on evil, 86 on good, 86 on love, 86 on natural rights, 146 on peace, 75, 88 on social contract, 75, 78 on strong government, 144 on war, 75, 88 Holder, Eric, 540 Holdings, 369 Hollingsworth v. Perry, 292 Homosexuality. See also Samesex marriages Aristotle on, 298, 299, 300 cisgender, 280 consequentialist views on, 291–292 Corvino on, 306–307 defined, 291 Finnis on, 298–306 Kant on, 291 Macedo on, 304n natural law and, 291–293 Plato on, 298–299, 300, 304n Regnerus on, 291–292 Scalia on, 279 Socrates on, 298, 304n transgender transitions, 280 as unnatural, 292–293, 306–307 utilitarianism and, 291 violence against, 279–280 Honor killing, 173 hooks, bell, 192 Hopwood v. Texas, 326 Humane Society, 464 Human Genome Project, 497, 498 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 281, 463 Human nature Aristotle on, 148, 157, 158–160 Hume on, 13, 14–15 Locke on, 148 Rorty on, 147 Sartre on, 147 sexuality and, 287, 289–292 Human rights, civil rights differentiated from, 320 Human Rights Watch, 384 Hume, David, 5, 8, 13, 14–15, 144 Hume’s law, 5, 144 Hunting animals, 458–459 Hurricane Sandy, 417, 418f Hursthouse, Rosalind, 248, 265 Huxley, Aldous, 496 Hypothetical imperative, 119, 131–132 Hysterotomy, 235 IACUCs. See Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees IMF. See International Monetary Fund Immigration law, 322 Impartiality, 123–124 Implicit bias, 310, 313–315 In a Different Voice (Gilligan), 186 Incarceration rates, 375–376 Incest, 284 Incrementalism, 585 “In Defense of Posthuman Dignity” (Bostrom), 525–526 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

612 INDEX Inden, Ronald, 453 individual relativism, 52 cultural relativism versus, 46–47 Infant euthanasia, 200, 201–206, 225 Inherent value, 419 Innocence Project, 388 Insanity defense, 381–382 Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs), 464 Institutional or structural oppression, 329, 333 Institutional racism, 313–315 Instrumental goods, 9, 98 Instrumental value, 419 Integrity, 101–102 Intellectual virtues, 159–160, 165 Intention, 126n Interests, 95 International aid, 569–570 International distributive justice, 566 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 571, 572 International Society for Stem Cell Research, 503 International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), 452, 466 Intrinsic goods, 9, 144 happiness as, 98–99, 105 Mill, John, on, 105 Intrinsic value, 419 Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Bentham), 96 Intuitionism, 7–8 Involuntary euthanasia, 206, 207–208, 217 Iraq War, 535 ISIS. See Islamic State in Iraq and Syria Islam, 21, 29 Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), 529, 560 “It’s Not Natural” (Corvino), 306–307 IUCN. See International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Jacobsen, Mark Z., 430 Jaggar, Alison, 186 Janzen, Daniel, 452 Jefferson, Thomas, 23, 31, 138, 142, 145, 359, 480, 481 Jenner, Caitlyn, 280 Jim Crow, 320, 323, 385, 400–401 John Paul II (pope), 209, 392, 414n Johnson, Harriet McBryde, 202 Johnson, Lyndon B., 321 The Joy of the Gospel. See Evangelii Guadium Juan Crow laws, 323 Just cause death penalty and, 408, 410 just war theory and, 530, 534–535 Justice, 369, 544, 565, 567. See also Distributive justice; Economic justice; Global justice; Restorative justice affirmative action and, 316, 328–329, 337 Baier, A., on, 185–192 bias and, 360 compensatory, 328–329 environment and, 422, 435–437 Gilligan on, 186 Kant on, 188, 351 Machan on, 351–352 poverty and, 566 procedural, 352 punishment and, 379 Rawls on, 124, 125, 186, 360–364, 367–368, 566 time-slice principles, 356 Just war theory, 143, 407 Aquinas and, 534 Augustine and, 534 discrimination and, 536–537 intrinsically evil means and, 537–538 Iraq War and, 535 just cause and, 530, 534–535 last resort and, 536 legitimate authority and, 535 Obama and, 534 proportionality and, 535–536 right intention, 536 Walzer on, 554–558 Kant, Immanuel, 16, 118f, 137, 138, 215, 259, 505 on animals, 289, 469 on categorical imperative, 119–122, 129–134 on death penalty, 391, 414n on duty, 116, 118, 123, 124–125, 127–129 on Enlightenment, 23–24, 117 on ethics, 3, 116, 351 evaluating moral theory of, 122–124 on good will, 118, 126–127 on homosexuality, 291 on hypothetical imperative, 119, 131–132 on impartiality, 123–124 on justice, 188, 351 on kingdom of ends, 122 on maxim, 120–121, 133–134 on moral equality, 123–124 on moral imperatives, 122–123, 130–131 on morality, 115, 117, 125, 197 moral law respect, 129 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX 613 on moral obligation, 119, 122 on motives, 117–118 on persons as ends, 134–136 on racism, 329 on reform, 24 right intention principle, 536 on sexuality, 287, 288–289 on Stoicism, 117 on suicide, 97, 209, 218 on virtues, 162 Karma, 30 Kass, Leon, 8 on biotechnology, 500, 515–524 on finitude, 523–524 on mastery, 519–520 Keenan, Nancy, 266 Kennedy, John F., 321 Kerrick, Randall, 340 Kevorkian, Jack, 209–210, 220n Keystone XL Pipeline, 433 Khomeini, Ruhollah (Ayatollah), 21 Kierkegaard, Søren, 116 Kim, Jim Yong, 563 Kin, 90–91 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 24f, 141, 320 on civil disobedience, 24 on Gandhi, 533, 549 influences on, 25 on pacifism, 549, 550, 553 Kingdom of ends, 122 Kinsey, Charles, 309 Kissling, Frances, 261–262, 264–270 Kluckhohn, Clyde, 60 Kohlberg, Lawrence, 175, 176, 187 Koppelman, Andrew, 302, 303, 305n, 306n Kristof, Nicholas, 172–173 Kurtz, Paul, 32 Kyoto Protocol, 434–435 Lachs, John, 53, 62–67 Ladd, John, 56 Laissez-faire capitalism, 76, 357 “The Land Ethic” (Leopold), 424 Lao Tzu, 452 Last resort death penalty as, 408, 411, 413 just war theory and, 536 “Law, Morality, and ‘Sexual Orientation’” (Finnis), 298–306 Law of Peoples (Rawls), 566 Lawrence, D. H., 337 Lawrence v. Texas, 278–279 LBGT. See Lesbian, Bisexual, Gay, and Transgender Lectures on Ethics (Kant), 351 LeMay, Curtis, 544–545 Leopold, Aldo, 425, 445 on biocentric equality, 424, 447 on environment, 424 Lesbian, Bisexual, Gay, and Transgender (LBGT), 280, 315, 325 Lesbians, 193 “Letter Concerning Toleration” (Locke), 31 “Letter from Birmingham Jail” (King), 24 “Letter to a Christian Nation” (Harris), 38–39 Leviathan (Hobbes), 85–88 Levi-Strauss, Claude, 91 Levitt, Steven, 376 Lewis, C. S., 520 Liberalism, 359 Liberalization, 574 Libertarianism, 352, 356–357, 359 Liberty, 96, 152 Life’s Dominion (Dworkin), 271 Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, 321 Lindeman, Hilde, 192–198 Lippmann, Walter, 147 Living High and Letting Die (Unger), 581–582 “Living on a Lifeboat” (Hardin), 584–590 Living wage, 348 Living will, 208–209 Locke, John, 25, 151 on God, 152–153 on natural law, 148, 379 on natural rights, 138, 145–148, 351 on social contract, 75 on state of nature, 152–154 on toleration, 31, 32 Locked-in syndrome, 219n Love, 186 Hobbes on, 86 sexuality and, 286 Loving v. Virginia, 297 Maccoby, Eleanor, 176–177 Macedo, Steven, 303, 304n Machan, Tibor, 356 on justice, 351–352 MacIntyre, Alasdair, 161–162, 185, 187 MacKinnon, Catharine A., 194, 248 Macy v. Department of Justice, 321 Madoff, Bernie, 347 Male moral perspective, 175 Malthus, Thomas, 564 Mariathasan, Mike, 560 Maritime Mammal Protection Act, 466 Markovits, Daniel, 340 Marquis, Don, 246, 249, 252–260 Martin, Trayvon, 309, 335 Marx, Karl, 33, 353, 354, 366n Mason, Jim, 461 Massaro, Thomas, 350 Mass incarceration, 374, 384, 385 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

614 INDEX Mastery, 519–520 Maternal practice, 177–178 Maternal thinking, Ruddick on, 177 Mather, Cotton, 64 Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, 324 Maxim, 120–121, 133–134, 136 Maximin strategy, 361, 363 Maxwell, Carol J. C., 263–264 Maynard, Brittany, 199–200 McBride, Conor, 393–394 McCain, John, 155, 546 McDonnell, Kathleen, 262, 264, 269 McElroy, Wendy, 172 McInemy, Ralph, 144 McNamara, Robert S., 544–545 Mean, virtues as, 158, 162, 167–168 Medical bankruptcy, 349 Mentally ill, euthanasia for, 200, 215–216 Metaethics, 3, 16, 44, 46 Mifepristone (RU486), 235 Mill, Harriet Taylor, 97 Mill, James, 96 Mill, John Stuart, 357 on death penalty, 390, 395, 402–406 on distributive justice, 351 on economic justice, 350–351 on Epicureanism, 107–108 on happiness, 98, 100–101, 110, 111–112 on intrinsic good, 105 on liberty, 96 on morality, 97 on pleasure, 97–98, 100, 108–109 portrait of, 93f, 96f on principle of utility, 101 on prostitution, 288 on sacrifice, 98 on sexuality, 288 on virtue, 111–112, 162 on women, 96–97 Milosevic, Slobodan, 549 Mind-computing technology, 490–491 Minimum wage, 348 Miscarriage, 235 M’Naghten Rule, 382 Modern liberalism, 359 Mohammed, Khaled Sheikh, 95, 546 Montejano, Antonio, 323 Montreal Protocol, 431 Moore, G. E., 7, 63–64, 144 on good, 5, 53 naturalistic fallacy, 5 Moore, Mary Tyler, 494 Moral agents, 423, 473 Moral Contexts (Walker), 196 Moral development Kohlberg on, 175, 187 Rawls on, 187 Moral disagreement, 49–50 Moral equality, 123–124 Moral imperatives, Kant on, 122–123, 130–131 Morality, 25, 26, 33, 44–45, 132 commonsense, 76 feminine, 177–178 Finnis on, 298–306 gender differences in, 176–177 gender-specific approaches to, 178–179 Kant on, 115, 117, 125, 197 Mill, John, on, 97 politics and, 197–198 power and, 195–196 reasons for, 77–78 Young on, 197 Moral judgments, 7, 54n, 214–218 Moral law, 27, 129, 140, 143 Moral obligation, 119, 122 Moral patients, 423, 460, 473 Moral philosophy, ethics as, 2–3 Moral pluralism, 53–54 Moral realism, 52–53 Morals absolute, 46, 52, 64 foundation of, 64 Moral significance, of voluntary euthanasia, 214–216 Moral standard, 109–110 Moral uncertainty, 48–50 Morning-after pill, 235 Morphological freedom, 525 Mother Teresa, 57, 59 Motives, 12, 117–118, 126n Muir, John, 424, 448 Multiculturalism, 319, 550–551 Muslims, profiling of, 323 Myostatin, 498 Naess, Ame, 425, 427, 445–446, 448 NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement Nagel, Thomas, 211 Naidoo, Kumi, 435 NARAL Pro-Choice America, 262, 263, 266 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 443 National Police Misconduct Reporting Project, 340 National Wildlife Federation, 433–434 Naturalistic fallacy, 5–6, 74, 144 Natural law, 5, 29, 139, 377 Aquinas on, 141–145, 149–151 Boyd on, 147 Cicero on, 141–142 death penalty and, 407–408 evaluating, 143–145 Grotius on, 143 historical origins, 141–143 homosexuality, 291–293 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX 615 human laws derived from, 150–151 introduction to, 140–141 Locke on, 148, 379 McInemy on, 144 precepts, 149–150 punishment and, 379 same-sex marriage and, 292–293 sexuality and, 289–291 Veatch on, 144 virtues and, 150 Voltaire on, 145–146 Natural rights Bentham on, 146, 481 Declaration of Independence and, 138, 145–146 evaluating, 146–147 Hobbes on, 146 Lippmann on, 147 Locke on, 138, 145–148, 351 Mill, John, on, 147 Nature, of virtues, 158–159, 164, 166–167 “The Need for More than Justice” (Baier, A.), 185–192 Needle, Rachel, 268 Negative peace, 550 Negative rights, 358 Neo-humanism, 32 “Neo-Humanist Manifesto” (Kurtz), 32 NEPA. See National Environmental Policy Act Netherlands abortion rates, 269 euthanasia practices, 207–208 involuntary euthanasia in, 217 legalized active euthanasia in, 207 Termination of Life on Request and Assisted Suicide Act in, 200 The New Jim Crow (Alexander), 395, 400–401 New Natural Law (NNL), 306–307 Nicomachean Ethics (Aristotle), 157, 163–169, 286 Nietzsche, Friedrich on power relations, 47, 50 on relativism, 47 Nineteenth Amendment, of Constitution, 320 NNL. See New Natural Law Noddings, Nel, 175, 184–185 Noncombatants, 537 Nonconsequentialism, 12 affirmative action and, 328–329 euthanasia and, 215–218 same-sex marriage and, 292 sexuality and, 288–289, 292 Noninterference rights, 356, 357, 358, 359 Nonviolence. See Pacifism Nonvoluntary euthanasia, 206, 207–208, 213, 214f Normative ethics, 3, 16 Normative judgments, 4 Normative relativism, descriptive relativism versus, 45–46 Normative theory, 4, 31 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 571 Nozick, Robert, 211, 363, 368–369 Nuclear weapons, 543–544 Nuremberg Code, 114, 140 Nussbaum, Martha, 47–48, 47f, 53 on animals, 470 on feminism, 180 Obama, Barack, 312, 433, 502, 506 on bin Laden, 540 on colonialism, 570 on drone use, 541 ISIS and, 529 just war theory and, 534 on torture, 546 Obergefell v. Hodges, 278, 279, 280, 293, 296–298 Objectivism, 7, 8–9, 46, 51, 55–56 Occupy Movement, 344–345 O’Connor, Peg, 173 Offshoring, 574 Okin, Susan Moller, 182 “One Is Not Born a Woman” (Wittig), 193 On Liberty (Mill, John), 96, 351 On the Subjection of Women (Mill, James), 96 Ontology, 242 Operation Pipeline drug interdiction project, 322 Optimal pollution, 437, 442 Original position, 360 Original sin, 29 “The Origins of Morality in Early Childhood” (Gilligan), 186 Outlaw, Lucius, Jr., 312–313 Outsourcing, 574 Ozone depletion, 431 Pacifism, 530, 534 Ackerman on, 549, 550 Duvall on, 500, 549 Fitz-Gibbon on, 551–553 Gan and, 549–550 Gandhi and, 533, 549, 550 King on, 533, 549, 550 Sharp on, 549, 550 Pacifism as Pathology (Churchill), 549 Paglia, Camille, 286 Pain, 168 animals and, 458–459, 461, 465, 471, 474 Bentham on, 96, 98 pleasure minus, 98–99 Paine, Thomas, 320 Palin, Sarah, 459 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

616 INDEX Palliative care, 200–201 Palliative sedation, 211–212 Paradox of toleration, 32 Parks, Rosa, 320 Parsons, Talcott, 91 Passive euthanasia, 206–207, 222 active versus, 216–218, 224–228 Pateman, Carol, 288 Patient Self-Determination Act (PSDA), 206, 209 Patterning, of distribution, 356, 369 Paul, Ron, 70 Payne v. Tennessee, 414n Peace, 548–549 crimes against, 545 historical and multicultural precedents, 550–551 Hobbes on, 75, 88 pacifisms, 551–553 “Peace” (Fitz-Gibbon), 548–553 Peace After Abortion (TorreBueno), 267, 268 Pearce, Diana, 269 People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), 464 People or Penguins: The Case for Optimal Pollution (Baxter), 442 Persistent vegetative state (PVS), 204, 219n Personal integrity, 101–102 “The Personal Is Political” (Hanisch), 197 Person/Planet (Roszak), 444 Perversion, 290–291 PETA. See People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals “The Philosopher’s Brief,” 210 Physician-assisted suicide, 199, 206, 209–211, 216t Pinker, Steven on altruism, 88–92 on kin, 90–91 on social contract, 78, 89–92 on society, 90–91 Pinto, Juliano, 490 Pistorius, Oscar, 492–493 Pius IX (pope), 237 Pizarro, David, 103 Planned Parenthood of Kansas City v. Ashcroft, 238 Plato, 22, 26, 77, 91, 157, 235, 497 on abortion, 235 on diversity, 28 on ethics, 3, 13, 78–85, 116 on eugenics, 497 on evil, 13, 550 on good, 8 on homosexuality, 298–299, 300, 304n on religion, 28, 34, 35–38 Pleasure, 168 Bentham on, 98 Mill, John, on, 97–98, 100, 108–109 minus pain, 98–99 quantity vs quality of, 100–101, 108–109 utilitarianism and, 97–98, 108–109 Plessy, Homer, 320 Plessy v. Ferguson, 320 Pluralism moral, 53–54 Rawls on, 362 religious, 28–29 value, 28 Poaching, 466 Pogge, Thomas, 563–564, 573 Pojman, Louis, 61–62 on conventionalism, 58–60 on relativism, 54, 55–60 on subjectivism, 57–58 Police Blue Lives Matter, 310 Broken Window Policy, 339 community policing, 339–340, 376 Deahl on, 340 federal immigration law enforcement, 322–323 homicides, of blacks, 309–310, 335–341, 341n National Police Misconduct Reporting Project, 340 Operation Pipeline, 322 stop-and-frisk policy, 322, 335–336, 340, 376 violence against, 309–310 Political liberalism, 32, 359 Politics deep ecology and, 453 morality and, 197–198 Pollution, 431–433 air, 418 Baxter on, 442 costs, 421–422, 430 optimal, 437, 442 Poor Richard’s Almanac (Franklin), 77–78 Population growth, 93–94, 418, 564 in prisons, 375, 383 Population control, 93–94, 586–589, 586f, 587f abortion and, 236 Pornography, 281 sexting and, 282 Wolf, N., on, 172 Positive peace, 550 Positive rights, 358 Post-Abortion Syndrome, 263, 266–268, 272n Posthuman, 491 Bostrom on, 525–526 Post-Scarcity Anarchism (Bookchin), 443 Poverty, 372. See also Global poverty Aquinas on, 565 extreme, 568 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX 617 feminization of, 181, 269 rate, 346–347, 349 Singer on, 564 Unger on, 581–582 Power gender and, 194–195 morality and, 195–196 relations, 47, 50 “The Power and the Glory” (Greene), 91 Pragmatism, 52, 132, 137, 532 Precautionary principle, 500 Preferences, 95–96 Preferential treatment, 319, 325–329 Preimplantation genetic screening, 497 Prejudice, 313, 354 Premises, 10 Prenatal Nondiscrimination Act, 236 Prescription, 196–197 Prescriptive laws, 140 Prima facie duties, 53, 125, 419 Prima facie value, 419 Principle of the will, 129 Principle of tolerance, 59 Principle of volition, 128, 136 Prisoner’s dilemma environment and, 436 ethical egoism and, 74–75, 74f Prisons abolitionist alternatives, 401–402 costs, 384 Davis on, 385, 395, 401–402 Foucault on, 395 population in, 375, 383 race and, 375–376, 383, 384–385 reform, 376 restoration and rehabilitation, 385–386 Privacy, 507–508 Prochoice abortion advocacy abortion reduction, 268–270 Burton on, 264 Cannold on, 265–266 caring for grieving women, 263, 266–268, 272n Dworkin on, 271 fetal value, 247–248, 270–272 Ginsburg on, 264 Kissling on, 261–262 Manninen on, 261–272 Maxwell on, 263–264 McDonnell on, 262, 264, 269 NARAL Pro-Choice America, 262, 263, 266 Post-Abortion Syndrome, 263, 266–268, 272n Torre-Bueno on, 267, 268 Wicklund on, 267–268 Wright, J., on, 269–270 Profiling hard, 323–324 Harris on, 323 Muslims, 323 Operation Pipeline drug interdiction project, 322 racial, 310, 322, 335–336, 338–339 soft, 323–324 Project Tiger, 451–452 Property rights, 363–364 Pro-social behaviors, 69 Prostaglandin drugs, 235 Prostitution, 285, 288 Protagoras, 65–66 Prothero, Stephen, 29, 30 PSDA. See Patient SelfDetermination Act Psychological egoism, 71–74 Punishment Alexander on, 400–401 Davis on, 401–406 deterrence argument, 377, 378–379 egalitarian equivalency, 380, 391 external relation to lawbreaking, 378 insanity defense, 381–382 justice and, 379 natural law and, 379 nature of legal, 377–378 proportional equivalency, 380, 391 responsibility and, 381–383 retribution argument, 377, 379–381 PVS. See Persistent vegetative state Quality of life, 202–203 Queer theory, 180 Quickening, 234, 237, 244 Quinlan, Karen, 206–207, 221 R2P. See Responsibility to protect Race Appiah on, 312, 315, 334 death penalty and, 388–389 discrimination based on, 311–315 feeling, 334 Outlaw on, 312–313 prisons and, 375–376, 383, 384–385 as social construct, 312, 315 Rachels, James on Down syndrome, 203 on euthanasia, 224–228 Racial discrimination, 311–315 profiling, 310, 322, 335–336, 338–339 Racialism, 311, 313 Appiah on, 312, 329, 334 Racism Appiah on, 329, 334 Black Lives Matter movement and, 311 defined, 313 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

618 INDEX Racism (continued) education and, 313–314 employment and, 314 extrinsic, 334 institutional, 313–315 intrinsic, 334 media and, 314–315 prejudice differentiated from, 313 structural, 313–315 Young on, 333 Zack on, 329, 335–340 “Racisms” (Appiah), 334 “Radical American Environmentalism and Wilderness Preservation: A Third World Critique” (Guha), 449–455 Rand, Ayn, 351, 364 on altruism, 70–71, 71f, 370 on capitalism, 369–370 Rape, 280, 284 Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network, 284 Ratchet effect, 586–589 Rationalism, 191 Rationalization, 11 Rawls, John, 211 on comprehensive doctrines, 32 on economic liberalism, 363 equality of liberties, 360–361 on equal opportunity, 362 on fairness, 125, 566–567 on justice, 124, 125, 186, 360–364, 367–368, 566 on original position, 360, 361 on patterning, 356, 369 on pluralism, 362 on political liberalism, 32, 359 on property rights, 363–364 on redistribution, 363–364 on social contract theory, 75–76, 367 on veil of ignorance, 360, 363, 368 Reagan, Ronald, 382 Realism, 530, 531–532 moral, 52–53 Reciprocal altruism, 71, 73, 89 Recycling, 431–433 Redistribution, 363–364 Reductionism, 423, 424–425 Reeve, Christopher, 494 Reformist environmentalism, 443–444 Regan, Tom, 474, 486 Regenerative medicine, 491, 494 Regnerus, Mark, 291–292 Rehabilitation, 385–386 Rehm, Markus, 493 Reiman, Jeffrey, 392 Relationship, in ethics of care, 176 Relativism. See also Cultural relativism Bloom on, 55 cultural, 26–27, 45, 46–47, 60–62 Dependency Thesis, 56, 60, 61 descriptive vs. normative, 45–46 diversity and, 48–50, 55–57, 60–61 Diversity Thesis, 56, 57, 60 Ethical, 60 Ladd on, 56 metaethical, 44, 46 Nietzsche on, 47 open-mindedness and, 48, 50 Pojman on, 54, 55–60 Rorty on, 51–52 self-contradictions and, 51–52 situational differences and, 48–49 strong, 47–48 support for, 48–53 tolerance and, 48, 49, 50, 52, 59 uncertainty, 48–50 weak, 47–48 “Relativism and Its Benefits” (Lachs), 62–67 Religion differences between, 21, 22–23, 28–29 discrimination and, 323, 325 diversity of, 21, 27–29 ethics and, 25–28 Gandhi on, 39–42 Marx on, 33 Plato on, 28, 34, 35–38 pluralism and, 28–29 Prothero on, 29, 30 Socrates on, 21–22, 34 virtues, 160 Reproductive technologies, 492, 495, 496 Republic (Cicero), 141 The Republic (Plato), 77, 79–85, 91, 235, 497 Rescher, Nicholas, 467 Responsibility to protect (R2P), 534–535 Responsive Communitarian Platform, 363 Restorative justice, 386 Conference of Catholic Bishops on, 385 death penalty and, 392–394 Retribution, 377, 379–381, 391–392 Rice, Tamir, 309, 335 Right intention principle, 536 Robertson, John, 203 Robespierre, Maximillen, 538 Roeder, Scott, 232 Roe v. Wade, 231, 232, 237, 238, 244, 248–249 Rolston, Holmes, 467–468 Rorty, Richard, 51–52, 147 Ross, W. D. on intuitionism, 7–8 on prima facie duties, 53, 125 Roszak, Theodore, 444, 446 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 75, 181 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX 619 Rowan, Andrew, 482–483 RU486. See Mifepristone Ruddick, Sara, 177 Rudolph, Eric, 232–233 Rule utilitarianism, 103–104, 123, 215, 217 Rumi, 28 Ruse, Michael, 8–9 Rushdie, Salman, 21 Ryan, George, 388 Ryan, Paul, 70 Sachs, Jeffrey, 573 Sacrifice, 98 Saints, 156 Sale, Kirkpatrick, 450 Saline solution abortion method, 235 Same-sex marriages, 278– 279, 287, 294. See also Homosexuality consequentialism and, 291–292 Finnis on, 300–303 natural law and, 292–293 nonconsequentialism and, 292 Sanders, Bernie, 345 Santorum, Rick, 207–208 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 147 Scalia, Antonin, 279 Scanlon, Thomas, 75, 507 Schaar, John, 355 Scheindlin, Shira, 338 Schiavo, Michael, 204 Schiavo, Terri, 203–204, 207, 213 Schuermann, Jan, 490, 490f Schwarzenegger, Arnold, 384 Schweitzer, Albert, 57 Scientific method, 16, 17 SCNT. See Somatic cell nuclear transfer The Second Sex (Beauvoir), 179, 193 Second Treatise on Government (Locke), 138, 151–154, 379 Secular ethics global ethics and, 32–34 toleration and, 31–32 Secular humanism, 32 Secularization, 31, 33 Segregation, in social media, 336–337 Selective nonviolence, 550 Self-evident truth, 145 Self-interest, 69, 118 capitalism and, 357 ethical egoism and, 70, 74–75 euthanasia argument, 222–223 global poverty and, 565 Selfish gene hypothesis, of Dawkins, 6, 9 Self-sacrifice, 70–71 Sen, Amartya, 34 Sentience, of animals, 469–472 September 11 terrorist attack, 376, 528 Sessions, George, 425, 437, 443–449 Sex education, 282–283 Sex-selective abortion, 236–237 Sexting, 282 Sex trafficking, 284–285 Sexual assault, 171–172 Sexual harassment, 321 Sexuality. See also Homosexuality Aquinas on, 301–302, 305n, 307 autonomy and, 280 Bentham on, 288 conceptual problems with, 285–286 consequentialism and, 287–288, 291–292 current issues, 280–285 deontology and, 288–289 Freud on, 286 human nature and, 287, 289–292 Kant on, 287, 288–289 love and, 286 Mill, John, on, 288 natural law and, 289–291 nonconsequentialism and, 288–289, 292 perverted, 290–291 pornography, 172, 281–282 psychological health and, 282, 286, 287 standards, 301–303, 305n STDs, 281 utilitarianism and, 281, 287–288 yes means yes law, 280 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), 281 Shakespeare, Tom, 202–203 “The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movements” (Naess), 445 Sharp, Gene, 549, 550 Shepard, Matthew, 324 Sidgwick, Henry, 480 on hedonism paradox, 73 Singer, Peter on animal experimentation, 482–485 on animals, 461, 471, 474, 477–485 on euthanasia, 202 on global justice, 580–581 on global poverty, 564, 573, 580–584 on speciesism, 471, 480–482 on suffering, 481–484 on utilitarianism, 96 on women, 480 “The Singer Solution to World Poverty” (Singer), 580–584 Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 498 Skepticism, 50, 56, 147 Slavery, 320, 350–351 Slote, Michael, 179, 185 Smith, Adam, 8, 13, 76, 92, 346 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

620 INDEX SNPs. See Single nucleotide polymorphisms Social contract theory, 100–101, 146 altruism and, 68, 71, 89–93 ethical egoism and, 73–75 Gauthier on, 75 Hobbes on, 75, 78 Pinker on, 78, 89–92 Rawls on, 75–76, 367 Social cooperation, 64 Social Darwinism, 144 Social ecology, 426 Socialism, 346, 357–358 Social justice, 350–352 Social media, 336–337 Social mobility, 348, 362 Sociobiology, 5–6 Socrates, 16, 24, 35–38 on divine command theory, 26, 116 on homosexuality, 298, 304n on religion, 21–22, 34 Sodomy, 278–279, 302, 305n Soft universalism, 47 Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), 495 The Souls of Black Folk (Du Bois), 337 Sound argument, 10 South Carolina v. Gathers, 410 Spaceship Earth suicidal policies, 584–590 ethics, 585 ratchet effect, 586–589 tragedy of the commons, 586 Speciesism Singer on, 471, 480–482 Steinbock on, 471–472, 487 “Speciesism and the Idea of Equality” (Steinbock), 487 “Speech in Favor of Capital Punishment (1868)” (Mill, John), 402–406 Sperling, John, 495 Starting gate theory, 355 STDs. See Sexually transmitted diseases Steffen, Lloyd, 386, 395, 406–413 Steinbock, Bonnie on animals, 474 on speciesism, 471–472, 487 Stem cell research, 493–495, 502–503 Sterba, James, 71 Sterling, Alton, 309 Stevenson, C. L. on descriptive judgments, 16 on emotivism, 8, 13 on good, 17–19 Stiglitz, Joseph, 572 Stocker, Michael, 185 Stoicism, 116–117 Stop-and-frisk policy, 322, 335–336, 340, 376 Straw man, 51 strong relativism, 47–48 Subjectivism, 8 Pojman on, 57–58 Substantial equality, 351 Suffering, 29–30, 224, 460–461, 469–470, 481–484 Sufficiency doctrine, 355 Suicide. See also Euthanasia; Physician-assisted suicide; Spaceship Earth suicidal policies John Paul II on, 209 Kant on, 97, 209, 218 terrorism and, 538–539 women and, 210 Summa Theologica (Aquinas), 142, 149–152 Sumner, William Graham, 56 Supererogatory, 352 Surrogate decision making, 203 Sustainable development, 435–436 Symbiosis, 424 Szasz, Thomas, 382 Taoism, 445–446, 462 Targeted killing, 540–542 Taylor, Thomas, 478 Tea Party, 345 Teen pregnancy, 282 Terminal sedation, 211–212 Termination of Life on Request and Assisted Suicide Act, Netherlands, 200 Terrorism, 540–547 defined, 538 ISIS and, 529, 560 September 11 attack, 376, 528 suicide and, 538–539 Tertullian, 587 Theism, 40 Theodicies, 29 “A Theory of Just Execution” (Steffen), 406–413 A Theory of Justice (Rawls), 125, 360–364, 367–368 Therapeutic cloning, 496 Therapy, 492, 493, 516–517 Thich Nhat Hanh, 551 This Common Secret (Wicklund), 267 Thomas, Laurence, 185 Thomson, Judith Jarvis, 11, 211, 241–242, 248–249, 251–252, 264–265, 270–271 Thoreau, Henry David, 24, 141, 424, 444, 552–553 Three-strikes law, 380 Thucydides, 531–532 Tiller, George, 232, 239 Tillman, Pat, 155, 156, 156f Toleration, 21 Habermas on, 32–33 Herskovits on, 59 Locke on, 31, 32 open-mindedness and, 50 paradox, 32 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

INDEX 621 relativism and, 48, 49, 50, 52, 59 secular ethics, 31–32 Tolstoy, Leo, 460 Tooley, Michael, 246–247 Torre-Bueno, Ava, 267, 268 Torture, 139, 376, 484–485, 540, 545 Cheney on, 95, 546–547 Trade barriers, 570–571 Tragedy of the commons, 435–437, 584, 586 Transcranial direct-current stimulation, 493 Transgender transitions, 280 Transgression of duty, 128 Transhuman, 491, 514 Bostrom on, 525–526 defining, 525 Transport for Female Genital Mutilation Act, 283 Trapping program, 458 Treatise of Human Nature (Hume), 13, 14–15 Trimester formula for abortion, 238 “The Triumph of Just War Theory (and the Dangers of Success)” (Walzer), 554–558 Trivers, Robert, 89 Trolley problem, 102–103 Trollope, Frances, 195 Trump, Donald, 21, 345 Truth, Sojourner, 480, 481 Truth and reconciliation process, 386 Tuana, Nancy, 173 Turnbull, Colin, 60–61 Turner v. Safley, 297 Tuskegee experiments, 114, 115, 115f, 120–121 Tutu, Desmond, 386 Unger, Peter, 581–582 United States v. Windsor, 279, 293 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 20–21, 32, 138–139, 146 Universal ethical egoism, 73, 74 Universalism, 47, 54 Universalization, 574 Universe, 142, 145 Unnatural animals and, 289 biotechnology as, 520–522 Corvino on, 293, 306–307 homosexuality as, 292–293, 306–307 Uterine or vacuum aspiration, 235 Utilitarianism, 12, 376–377 abortion and, 240–241 Bentham on, 96–97, 288 controversies, 94–95 on death penalty, 391 defining, 107–112 evaluation of, 101–102 forms of, 103–104 happiness and, 97–100 historical background, 96–97 homosexuality and, 291 influence of, 105 justifications of, 94–95 Mill, John, on, 96, 97, 105, 107–112 moral standard, 109–110 personal integrity and, 101–102 pleasure and, 97–98, 108–109 procedure for, 95 proof of, 105, 110–112 rule, 103–104, 123, 215, 217 sexuality and, 281, 287–288 Singer on, 96 trolley problem, 102–103 virtues and, 157, 162 weighing consequences, 95–96 Utilitarianism (Mill, John), 96, 97, 105, 107–112 Utility principle, 96, 98 Mill, John, on, 97, 101, 105 proof of, 105, 110–112 “The Value of Choice and the Choice to Value: Expanding the Discussion about Fetal Life within Prochoice Advocacy” (Manninen), 261–272 Veatch, Henry, 144 Vegetarianism, 460–463 Veil of ignorance, 360, 363, 368 Venter, Craig, 497–498 Ventura, Jesse, 459 Vice, 156, 157–158, 166, 168 Vietnam War, 555–556 A Vindication of the Rights of Women (Wollstonecraft), 179, 478 Violence, 550 Black Lives Matter movement and, 309–310 downward trend in crimes of, 376 against homosexuality, 279–280 permitted, 529 against police, 309–310 against women, 171–173 Virtues, 265 Aquinas on, 150 Aristotle on, 157–160, 162, 164–169 cardinal, 158 Confucius on, 160 contemporary, 160–161 corrective, 161 courage, 161, 162, 165–166, 168 cross-cultural, 160–161 deficiency, 158, 166, 169 deontology and, 157, 162 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

622 INDEX Virtues, (continued) effort and, 162, 169–170 egoism and, 76–78 evaluating, 161–163 excess, 158, 166, 169 Foot on, 161, 162 function of person, 164–165 intellectual, 159–160, 165 Kant on, 162 MacIntyre on, 161–162 as mean, 158, 162, 167–168 Mill, John, on, 111–112, 162 moral, 161, 165 natural law and, 165 nature of, 158–159, 164, 166–167 religious, 160 utilitarianism and, 157, 162 women and, 161 “Virtue Theory and Abortion” (Hursthouse), 265 Voltaire, 145–146 Voluntary euthanasia, 206, 207–208 moral significance of, 214–216, 216t types of, 213, 214f Voluntary motion, 85 Voting Rights Act, 321 Walker, Lenore, 268 Walker, Margaret Urban, 196 Walzer, Michael, 554–558 War, 75, 88. See also Just war theory crimes, 544–546 Iraq, 535 Vietnam, 555–556 Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Antonio, 331n Warren, Karen J., 426 Warren, Mary Anne, 247, 249, 272n Waste disposal, 431–433 Watts, Jonathan, 444–445 Weak relativism, 47–48 Weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), 528, 542–544 Weber v. Kaiser Aluminum, 321 “What ‘White Privilege’ Really Means” (Yancy), 335 Whitbeck, Caroline, 177 Whitehead, Alfred North, 3 White Privilege and Black Rights (Zack), 329, 335–340 WHO. See World Health Organization Whole brain death, 205–206 “Who’s to Judge” (Pojman), 55–62 “Why Abortion Is Immoral” (Marquis), 252–260 Wicklund, Susan, 267–268 Wilberforce, William, 59 Wilderness protection, 433–434, 449–455 Wildlife Services, 458 Williams, Bernard, 187, 355 Wilson, E. O., 5–6, 60 Wisdom, 161 Wittig, Monique, 193 WMDs. See Weapons of mass destruction Wolf, Naomi, 172 Wolf, Susan, 156, 187, 196 Wollstonecraft, Mary, 179, 478 Women, 179, 478. See also Abortion; Feminism Aristotle on, 181 combat roles, 319 diversity and, 180, 193 economic inequality, 348 equality for, 146, 193 Freud on, 176, 177 Mill, John, on, 96–97 Post-Abortion Syndrome, 263, 266–268, 272n sexual objectification of, 172 Singer on, 480 suicide and, 210 violence against, 171–173 virtues, 181 World Bank, 567, 568, 569, 571, 572 World Health Organization (WHO), 236, 283 World Trade Organization (WTO), 571, 572 World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 452 The Wretched of the Earth (Fanon), 570 Wright, Joseph, 269–270 Wright, Robert, 574 “The Wrongfulness of Euthanasia” (Gay-Williams), 221–224 WTO. See World Trade Organization WuDunn, Sheryl, 172–173 WWF. See World Wildlife Fund Xenotransplantation, 509 Yamanaka, Shinya, 502 Yancy, George, 335 Yanukovych, Viktor, 549 yes means yes law, 280 Yoo, John, 546 Young, Iris Marion, 197, 329, 333 Yousafzai, Malala, 171, 172f Zack, Naomi, 329, 335–340 Zimmerman, George, 309 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202

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