What is the process of transforming a cell with no specialized function

Recommended textbook solutions

Essential Cell Biology

4th EditionBruce Alberts, Dennis Bray, Karen Hopkin

359 solutions

Biology

13th EditionJacqueline Reck

Genetics Analysis and Principles

4th EditionRobert Brooker

1,163 solutions

Elevate Middle Grade Science 2019 Physical

1st EditionPrentice Hall

403 solutions

Recommended textbook solutions

Essential Cell Biology

4th EditionBruce Alberts, Dennis Bray, Karen Hopkin

359 solutions

Prentice Hall Biology (California)

1st EditionKenneth R. Miller, Levine

2,427 solutions

Prentice Hall Biology, Oklahoma Edition

1st EditionKenneth R. Miller

2,427 solutions

Alabama Prentice Hall Biology

1st EditionJoseph S. Levine, Kenneth Miller

2,427 solutions

Figure 5: An ATP molecule

ATP consists of an adenosine base (blue), a ribose sugar (pink) and a phosphate chain. The high-energy phosphate bond in this phosphate chain is the key to ATP's energy storage potential.

The particular energy pathway that a cell employs depends in large part on whether that cell is a eukaryote or a prokaryote. Eukaryotic cells use three major processes to transform the energy held in the chemical bonds of food molecules into more readily usable forms — often energy-rich carrier molecules. Adenosine 5'-triphosphate, or ATP, is the most abundant energy carrier molecule in cells. This molecule is made of a nitrogen base (adenine), a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups. The word adenosine refers to the adenine plus the ribose sugar. The bond between the second and third phosphates is a high-energy bond (Figure 5).

The first process in the eukaryotic energy pathway is glycolysis, which literally means "sugar splitting." During glycolysis, single molecules of glucose are split and ultimately converted into two molecules of a substance called pyruvate; because each glucose contains six carbon atoms, each resulting pyruvate contains just three carbons. Glycolysis is actually a series of ten chemical reactions that requires the input of two ATP molecules. This input is used to generate four new ATP molecules, which means that glycolysis results in a net gain of two ATPs. Two NADH molecules are also produced; these molecules serve as electron carriers for other biochemical reactions in the cell.

Glycolysis is an ancient, major ATP-producing pathway that occurs in almost all cells, eukaryotes and prokaryotes alike. This process, which is also known as fermentation, takes place in the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen. However, the fate of the pyruvate produced during glycolysis depends upon whether oxygen is present. In the absence of oxygen, the pyruvate cannot be completely oxidized to carbon dioxide, so various intermediate products result. For example, when oxygen levels are low, skeletal muscle cells rely on glycolysis to meet their intense energy requirements. This reliance on glycolysis results in the buildup of an intermediate known as lactic acid, which can cause a person's muscles to feel as if they are "on fire." Similarly, yeast, which is a single-celled eukaryote, produces alcohol (instead of carbon dioxide) in oxygen-deficient settings.

In contrast, when oxygen is available, the pyruvates produced by glycolysis become the input for the next portion of the eukaryotic energy pathway. During this stage, each pyruvate molecule in the cytoplasm enters the mitochondrion, where it is converted into acetyl CoA, a two-carbon energy carrier, and its third carbon combines with oxygen and is released as carbon dioxide. At the same time, an NADH carrier is also generated. Acetyl CoA then enters a pathway called the citric acid cycle, which is the second major energy process used by cells. The eight-step citric acid cycle generates three more NADH molecules and two other carrier molecules: FADH2 and GTP (Figure 6, middle).

Figure 6: Metabolism in a eukaryotic cell: Glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation

Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm. Within the mitochondrion, the citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, and oxidative metabolism occurs at the internal folded mitochondrial membranes (cristae).

The third major process in the eukaryotic energy pathway involves an electron transport chain, catalyzed by several protein complexes located in the mitochondrional inner membrane. This process, called oxidative phosphorylation, transfers electrons from NADH and FADH2 through the membrane protein complexes, and ultimately to oxygen, where they combine to form water. As electrons travel through the protein complexes in the chain, a gradient of hydrogen ions, or protons, forms across the mitochondrial membrane. Cells harness the energy of this proton gradient to create three additional ATP molecules for every electron that travels along the chain. Overall, the combination of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation yields much more energy than fermentation - 15 times as much energy per glucose molecule! Together, these processes that occur inside the mitochondion, the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation, are referred to as respiration, a term used for processes that couple the uptake of oxygen and the production of carbon dioxide (Figure 6).

The electron transport chain in the mitochondrial membrane is not the only one that generates energy in living cells. In plant and other photosynthetic cells, chloroplasts also have an electron transport chain that harvests solar energy. Even though they do not contain mithcondria or chloroplatss, prokaryotes have other kinds of energy-yielding electron transport chains within their plasma membranes that also generate energy.

Which theory states that there are emergent properties?

What is a microscopic structure in a cell that carries out individual functions called?

What is a cell or organ that is specialized to detect a stimulus called?

Which of the following is a process by which an educated guess is capable of being tested?